第26章

andthereareindicationsthattheplanetsdifferfromoneanotherintheir

properheats，aswellasintheheatswhichtheyreceivefromthesun。Bearing

inmindthattheyalsodifferintheinclinationsoftheirorbits，theinclinations

oftheiraxes，intheirspecificgravities，andintheirphysicalconstitutions，

weseehowdecidedisthecomplexitywroughtintheSolarSystembythosesecondaryredistributionswhichhaveaccompaniedtheprimaryredistribution。§118。Passingfromillustrations，which，asassumingthenebular

hypothesis，mustbeclassedasmoreorlesshypothetical，letusdescendtoevidencelessopentoobjection。ItisnowagreedamonggeologiststhattheEarthwasonceamoltenmass。

Originally，then，itwascomparativelyhomogeneousinconsistence;and，because

ofthecirculationwhichtakesplaceinheatedliquids，musthavebeencomparatively

homogeneousintemperature。Itmust，too，havebeensurroundedbyanatmosphere

consistingpartlyoftheelementsofairandwater，andpartlyofthosevarious

otherelementswhichassumegaseousformsathightemperatures。Coolingby

radiationmust，afteranimmensetime，haveresultedindifferentiatingthe

portionmostabletopartwithitsheat;namely，thesurface。Afurthercooling，

leadingtodepositionofallsolidifiableelementscontainedintheatmosphere，

andthentoprecipitationofthewater，leavingbehindtheair，mustthus

havecausedasecondmarkeddifferentiation;andasthecondensationcommenced

onthecoolestpartsofthesurface—namely，aboutthepolestheremustsohaveresultedthefirstgeographicaldistinctions。Totheseillustrationsofgrowingheterogeneity，inferredfromknownlaws，

Geologyaddsanextensiveseriesthathavebeeninductivelyestablished。

TheEarth\'sstructurehasbeenageafteragefurthercomplicatedbyadditions

tothestratawhichformitscrust;andithasbeenageafteragemademore

variousbytheincreasingcompositionofthesestrata;themorerecentof

which，formedfromthedetritusofthemoreancient，aremanyofthemrendered

highlycomplexbythemixturesofmaterialstheycontain。Thisheterogeneity

hasbeenvastlyaugmentedbytheactionsoftheEarth\'snucleusonitsenvelope;

whencehaveresultednotonlymanykindsofigneousrocks，butthetilting

upofsedimentarystrataatallangles，theformationoffaultsandmetallic

veins，theproductionofendlessdislocationsandirregularities。Again，

geologiststeachusthattheEarth\'ssurfacehasbeengrowingmorevaried

inelevation——thatthemostancientmountain—systemsarethesmallest，

andtheAndesandHimalayasthemostmodern;while，inallprobability，there

havebeencorrespondingchangesinthebedoftheocean。Asaconsequence

ofthisceaselessmultiplicationofdifferences，wenowfindthatnoconsiderable

portionoftheEarth\'sexposedsurface，islikeanyotherportion，eitherincontour，ingeologicstructure，orinchemicalcomposition。Therehasbeensimultaneouslygoingonagradualdifferentiationofclimates。

AsfastastheEarthcooledanditscrustsolidified，inequalitiesoftemperature

arosebetweenthosepartsofitssurfacemostexposedtotheSunandthose

lessexposed;andthusintimetherecametobethemarkedcontrastsbetween

regionsofperpetualiceandsnowregionswherewinterandsummeralternately

reignforperiodsvaryingaccordingtothelatitude，andregionswheresummer

followssummerwithscarcelyanappreciablevariation。Meanwhile，elevations

andsubsidences，recurringhereandthereovertheEarth\'scrust，andproducing

irregulardistributionsoflandandsea，haveentailedvariousmodifications

ofclimatebeyondthosedependentonlatitude;whileayetfurtherseries

ofsuchmodificationshasbeencausedbyincreaseddifferencesofheight

inthesurface，whichinsundryplaceshavebroughtarctic，temperate，and

tropicalclimatestowithinafewmilesofoneanother。Thegeneralresults

are，thateveryextensiveregionhasitsownmeteorologicalconditions，and

thateverylocalityineachregiondiffersmoreorlessfromothersinthoseconditions:asalsoinitsstructure，itscontour，itssoil。ThusbetweenourexistingEarth，thephenomenaofwhosevariedcrustneither

geographers，geologists，mineralogists，normeteorologistshaveyetenumerated，

andthemoltenglobeoutofwhichitwasevolved，thecontrastinheterogeneityisstriking。§119。Theclearest，mostnumerous，andmostvariedillustrations

oftheadvanceinmultiformitythataccompaniestheadvanceinintegration，

arefurnishedbylivingbodies。Distinguishedasthesearebythegreatquantity

oftheircontainedmolecularmotion，theyexhibitinanextremedegreethe

secondaryre—distributionswhichcontainedmotionfacilitates。Thehistory

ofeveryplantandeveryanimal，whileitisahistoryofincreasingbulk，

isalsoahistoryofsimultaneously—increasingdifferencesamongtheparts。Thistransformationhasseveralaspects。Thechemicalcompositionwhichisalmostuniformthroughoutthesubstance

ofagerm，vegetaloranimal，graduallyceasestobeuniform。Theseveral

compounds，nitrogenousandnon—nitrogenous，whichwerehomogeneouslymixed，

segregatebydegrees，becomediverselyproportionedindiverseplaces，and

producenewcompoundsbytransformationormodification。Inplantsthealbuminous

andamylaceousmatterswhichformthesubstanceoftheembryo，giveorigin

heretoapreponderanceofchlorophyllandtheretoapreponderanceofcellulose。

Overthepartsthatarebecomingleaf—surfaces，certainofthematerials

aremetamorphosedintowax。Inthisplacestarchpassesintooneofitsisomeric

equivalents，sugar;andinthatplaceintoanotherofitsisomericequivalents，

gum。Bysecondarychangesomeofthecelluloseismodifiedintowood;while

someofitismodifiedintothealliedsubstancewhich，inlargemasses，

wecallcork。Andthemorenumerouscompoundsthusarising，initiatefurther

unlikenessesbyminglinginunlikeratios。Theyelk，oressentialpartof

ananimal—ovum，havingcomponentswhichareatfirstevenlydiffusedamong

oneanother，chemicallytransformsitselfinlikemanner。Itsprotein，its

fats，itssalts，becomedissimilarlyproportionedindifferentlocalities;

andmultiplicationofisomericformsleadstofurthermixturesandcombinations

thatconstituteminordistinctionsofparts。Hereamassdarkeningbyaccumulation

ofhematine，presentlydissolvesintoblood。Therefattyandalbuminousmatters

uniting，composenerve—tissue。Atthisspotthenitrogenoussubstancetakes

onthecharacterofcartilage;andatthat，calcareoussalts，gatheringtogether

inthecartilage，laythefoundationofbone。Allthesechemicaldifferentiationsslowlybecomemoremarkedandmorenumerous。Simultaneouslyarisecontrastsofminutestructure。Distincttissuestake

theplaceofmatterthathadpreviouslynorecognizableunlikenessesofparts;

andeachofthetissuesfirstproducedundergoessecondarymodifications，

causingsub—speciesoftissues。Thegranularprotoplasmofthevegetalgerm，

equallywiththatwhichformstheunfoldingpointofeveryshoot，givesorigin

tocellsthatareatfirstalike。Someofthese，astheygrow，flattenand

unitebytheiredgestoformtheouterlayer。Otherslengthen，andatthe

sametimejointogetherinbundlestolaythefoundationofwoody—fibre。

Beforemuchelongating，certainofthesecellsshowabreaking—upofthe

liningdeposit，which，duringelongation，becomesaspiralthread，orareticulated

framework，oraseriesofrings;andbythelongitudinalunionofcellsso

lined，vesselsareformed。Meanwhileeachofthesedifferentiatedtissues

isre—differentiated:instancethatconstitutingtheessentialpartofa

leaf，theupperstratumofwhichiscomposedofchlorophyll—cellsremaining

closelypacked，whilethelowerstratumbecomesspongy。Ofthesamegeneral

characterarethetransformationsundergonebythefertilizedovum，which，

atfirstaclusterofsimilarcells，quicklyreachesastagemarkedbydissimilarity

ofthecells。Morefrequentlyrecurringfissionofthesuperficialcells，

aresultingsmallersizeofthem，andsubsequentunionofthemintoanouter

layer，constitutethefirstdifferentiation;andthemiddleareaofthis

layerisrenderedunliketherestbystillmoreactiveprocessesoflike

kind。Bysuchmodificationsuponmodifications，manyandvarious，arisethe

classesandsub—classesoftissueswhich，intricatelycombinedonewithanother，composeorgans。Equallyconformingtothelawarethechangesingeneralshapeandin

theshapesoforgans。Allgermsareatfirstspheresandalllimbsareat

firstbudsormereroundedlumps。Fromthisprimordialuniformityandsimplicity，

theretakeplacedivergences，bothofthewholesandoftheleadingparts，

towardsmultiformityofcontourandtowardscomplexityofcontour。Remove

thecompactly—foldedyoungleavesthatterminateeveryshoot，andthenucleus

isfoundtobeacentralknobbearinglateralknobs，oneofwhichmaygrow

intoeitheraleaf，asepal，apetal，astamen，oracarpel:alltheseeventually

——unlikepartsbeingatfirstalike。Theshootsthemselvesalsodepartfrom

theirprimitiveunityofform;andwhileeachbranchbecomesmoreorless

differentfromtherest，thewholeexposedpartoftheplantbecomesdifferent

fromtheimbeddedpart。So，too，isitwiththeorgansofanimals。Oneof

theArthropoda，forinstance，haslimbsthatwereoriginallyindistinguishable

fromoneanother——composedahomogeneousseries;butbycontinuousdivergences

therehavearisenamongthemunlikenessesofsizeandform，suchaswesee

inthecrabandthelobster。Vertebratecreaturesequallyexemplifythis

truth。Thewingsandlegsofabirdareofsimilarshapeswhentheybud—outfromthesidesoftheembryo。Thusineveryplantandanimal，conspicuoussecondaryre—distributions

accompanytheprimaryre—distribution。Afirstdifferencebetweentwoparts;

ineachofthesepartsotherdifferenceswhichpresentlybecomeasmarked

asthefirst;andalikemultiplicationofdifferencesingeometricalprogression，

untilthereisreachedthatcomplexcombinationconstitutingtheadult。This

isthehistoryofalllivingthingswhatsoever。PursuinganideawhichHarvey

setafloat，ithasbeenshownbyWolffandVonBaer，thatduringitsdevelopment

eachorganismpassesfromastateofhomogeneitytoastateofheterogeneity。Foragenerationthistruthhasbeenacceptedbybiologists。*<*Itwasin1852thatIbecameacquaintedwithVonBaer\'sexpression

ofthisgeneralprinciple。Theuniversalityoflawhadeverbeenwithme

apostulate，carryingwithitacorrelativebelief，tacitifnotavowed，

inunityofmethodthroughoutNature。Thisstatementthateveryplantand

animal，originallyhomogeneous，becomesgraduallyheterogeneous，setupa

co—ordinationamongthoughtswhichwerepreviouslyunorganized，orbutpartially

organized。ItistruethatinSocialStatics（PartIV，§§12—16），

publishedbeforemeetingwithVonBaer\'sformula，thedevelopmentofanindividual

organismandthedevelopmentofasocialorganism，aredescribedasalike

consistinginadvancefromsimplicitytocomplexity，andfromindependent

likepartstomutually—dependentunlikeparts。Butthoughadmittingofextension

toothersuper—organicphenomena，thisstatementwastoospecialtoadmit

ofextensiontoinorganicphenomena。ThegreataidtenderedbyVonBaer\'s

formulaarosefromitshigherabstractness;since，onlywhenorganictransformations

hadbeenexpressedinthemostabstractterms，wasthewayopenedforseeing

whattheyhadincommonwithinorganictransformations。Theconvictionthat

thisprocessofchangegonethroughbyeachunfoldingorganism，isaprocess

gonethroughbyallthings，founditsfirstcoherentstatementinanessay

on"Progress:itsLawandCause"whichIpublishedintheWestminster

ReviewforApril，1857——anessaywiththefirsthalfofwhichthis

chaptercoincidesinsubstance，andpartlyinform。Inthatessay，however，

asalsointhefirsteditionofthiswork，Ifellintotheerrorofsupposing

thatthetransformationofthehomogeneousintotheheterogeneousconstitutes

Evolution。Wehaveseenthatthisisnotso。Itconstitutesthesecondary

re—distributionaccompanyingtheprimaryre—distributioninthatEvolution

whichwedistinguishascompound;orratherisweshillpresentlysee，itconstitutesthemostconspicuoustraitofthissecondaryre—distribution。>§120。Whenwepassfromindividualformsoflifetolifeatlarge，

andaskwhetherthesamelawisseenintheensembleofitsmanifestations

——whethermodernplantsandanimalshavemoreheterogeneousstructuresthan

ancientones，andwhethertheEarth\'spresentFloraandFaunaaremoreheterogeneous

thantheFloraandFaunaofthepast，——wefindtheevidencesofragmentary

thatnearlyeveryconclusionisopentodispute。Three—fifthsoftheEarth\'s

surfacebeingcoveredbywater;agreatpartoftheexposedlandbeinginaccessible

to，oruntravelledby，thegeologist;themostoftheremainderhavingbeen

scarcelymorethanglancedat;andevenfamiliarportions，asEngland，having

beensoimperfectlyexploredthatanewseriesofstratahasbeenaddedwithin

thesefewyears;itisclearlyimpossibletosaywithanycertaintywhat

creatureshave，andwhathavenot，existedatanyparticularperiod。Considering

theperishablenatureofmanyofthelowerorganicforms，themetamorphosis

ofmanybedsofsediment，andthegapsthatoccuramongtherest，weshall

seefurtherreasonfordistrustingourdeductions。Ontheonehand，therepeated

discoveryofvertebrateremainsinstratapreviouslysupposedtocontain

none——ofreptileswhereonlyfishwerethoughttoexist，andofmammals

whereitwasbelievedtherewerenocreatureshigherthanreptiles;renders

itdailymoremanifesthowsmallisthevalueofnegativeevidence。Onthe

otherhand，theworthlessnessoftheassumptionthatwehavefoundtheearliest，

oranythingliketheearliest，organicremains，isbecomingequallyclear。

Thattheoldestknownaqueousformationshavebeengreatlychangedbyigneous

action，andthatstillolderoneshavebeentotallytransformedbyit，is

becomingundeniable。Andthefactthatsedimentarystrataearlierthanany

weknowhavebeenmeltedup，beingadmitted，itmustalsobeadmittedthat

wecannotsayhowfarbackintimethisdestructionofsedimentarystrata

hasbeengoingon。Foraughtweknowtothecontrary，onlythelastchaptersoftheEarth\'sbiologicalhistorymayhavecomedowntous。Mostinferencesmustthusbeextremelyquestionable。Ifaprogressionist

arguesthattheearliestknownvertebrateremainsarethoseofFishes，which

arethemosthomogeneousoftheVertebrata;thatReptiles，whicharemore

heterogeneous，arelater;andthatlaterstill，andmoreheterogeneousstill，

areMammalsandBirds;itmayberepliedthatthePalaeozoicdeposits，not

beingestuarydeposits，arenotlikelytocontaintheremainsofterrestrial

Vertebrata，whichmayneverthelesshaveexisted。Alikeanswermaybemade

totheargumentthatthevertebratefaunaofthePalaeozoicperiod，consisting，

sofarasweknow，entirelyofFishes，waslessheterogeneousthanthemodern

vertebratefauna，whichincludesReptiles，BirdsandMammals，ofmultitudinous

genera;whileauniformitarianmaycontendwithgreatshowoftruth，that

thisappearanceofhigherandmorevariedformsinlatergeologiceras，was

duetoprogressiveimmigration——thatacontinentslowlyupheavedfromthe

oceanatapointremotefrompre—existingcontinents，wouldnecessarybe

peopledfromtheminasuccessionlikethatwhichourstratadisplay。At

thesametimethecounter—argumentsmaybeprovedequallyinconclusive。When，

toshowthattherecannothavebeenacontinuousevolutionofthemorehomogeneous

organicformsintothemoreheterogeneousones，theuniformitarianpoints

tothebreakswhichoccurinthesuccessionoftheseforms，thereisthe

sufficientanswerthatcurrentgeologicalchangesshowuswhysuchbreaks

mustoccur，andwhy，bysubsidencesandelevationsoflargeareas，there

mustbeproducedbreakssoimmenseasthosewhichdividethegreatgeologic

epochs。Oragain，iftheopponentofthedevelopmenthypothesiscitesthe

factssetforthbyProfessorHuxleyinhislectureon"PersistentTypes"

——ifhepointsoutthat"ofsometwohundredknownordersofplants，

notoneisexclusivelyfossil，"while"amonganimals，thereis

notasingletotallyextinctclass;andoftheorders，attheoutsidenot

morethansevenpercentareunrepresentedintheexistingcreation"

——ifheurgesthatamongthesesomehavecontinuedfromtheSilurianepoch

toourowndaywithscarcelyanychangeandifheinfersthatthereisa

muchgreateraverageresemblancebetweenthelivingformsofthepastand

thoseofthepresent，thanconsistswiththehypothesis;thereisstilla

satisfactoryreply，onwhichinfactProf。Huxleyinsists;namely，thatwe

haveevidenceofa"pre—geologicera"ofunknownduration。And，

indeed，whenwerememberthattheenormoussubsidencesoftheSilurianperiod

showtheEarth\'scrusttohavebeenapproximatelyasthickthenasitis

now——whenweconcludethatthetimetakentoformsothickacrust，must

havebeenimmenseascomparedwiththetimewhichhassinceelapsed——when

weassume，aswemust，thatduringthiscomparativelyimmensetimethegeologic

andbiologicchangeswentonattheirusualrates;itbecomesmanifest，not

onlythatthepalaeontologicalrecordswhichwefinddonotnegativethe

theoryofevolution，butthattheyaresuchasmightrationallybelookedfor。Moreover，thoughtheevidencesufficesneitherforproofnordisproof，

yetsomeofitsmostconspicuousfactssupportthebelief，thatthemore

heterogeneousorganismsandgroupsoforganisms，havebeenevolvedfromthe

lessheterogeneousones。Theaveragecommunityoftypebetweenthefossils

ofadjacentstrata，andespeciallythecommunityfoundbetweenthelatest

tertiaryfossilsandcreaturesnowexisting，isoneofthesefacts。Thediscovery

insomemoderndepositsofsuchformsasthePataeotheriumandAnaplotherium，

which，accordingtoProf。Owen，hadatypeofstructureintermediatebetween

someofthetypesnowexisting，isanotherofthesefacts。Andthecomparatively

recentappearanceofMan，isathirdfactofthiskind，whichpossessesstill

greatersignificance。*<*Ileavethesesentencesastheystoodwhenwritten

nearlyfortyyearsago，thinkingitbettertonameinanotethevastamount

ofconfirmatoryevidencewhichhasaccumulatedintheinterval，andwhich

rendersunassailabletheconclusiondrawn。In1862noonethoughtitpossible

thattherecouldbeproofofatransitionbetweenreptilesandbirds;and

yetsincethattimeformsunquestionablytransitionalhavebeenfound。Though

theindicationsofmanyothersuchkinships，bythediscoveriesofintercalary

forms，havenotyetinmostcasesbeenfollowedbyproofsofcontinuousgenealogy，

yetitisotherwiseinthecaseofthehorse，theancestryofwhichhasbeen

traced。Evidenceofdescentfromathree—toedanimaloftheMioceneperiod

isconsideredbyProf。Huxleyasconclusive:scepticalandcautiousthough

heis。InhisInauguralAddresstotheGeologicalSocietyin1870，on"Paleontology

andtheDoctrineofEvolution。"manyfurtherillustrationsaregiven

ofkinshipsbetweenancientandmoderntypes。Nowadays，indeed，thereis

universalagreementamongnaturalists（afewsurvivingdisciplesofCuvier

inFrancebeingexcepted）thatallorganicformshavearisenbythesuperposing

ofmodificationsuponmodifications:increaseinheterogeneitybeinganaverageimplication。>HencewemaysaythatthoughourknowledgeofpastlifeupontheEarthis

relativelysmall，yetwhatwehave，andwhatwecontinuallyaddtoit，support

thebeliefthattherehasbeenanevolutionofthesimpleintothecomplexalikeinindividualformsandintheaggregateofforms。§121。Advancefromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneousisclearly

displayedintheprogressofthelatestandmostheterogeneouscreature——

Man。WhilethepeoplingoftheEarthhasbeengoingon，thehumanorganism

hasgrownmoreheterogeneousamongthecivilizeddivisionsofthespecies;

andthespecies，asawhole，hasbeenmademoreheterogeneousbythemultiplication

ofracesandthedifferentiationofthemfromoneanother。Inproofofthe

firstofthesestatementsmaybecitedthefactthat，intherelativedevelopment

ofthelimbs，civilizedmendepartmorewidelyfromthegeneraltypeofthe

placentalmammalia，thandothelowestmen。Thoughoftenpossessingwell—developed

bodyandarms，thePapuanhasverysmalllegs:thusremindingusoftheman—like

apes，inwhichthereisnogreatcontrastinsizebetweenthehindandfore

limbs。ButintheEuropean，thegreaterlengthandmassivenessofthelegs

hasbecomemarked——theforeandhindlimbsarerelativelymoreheterogeneous。

Thegreaterratiowhichthecranialbonesbeartothefacialbones，illustrates

thesametruth。AmongtheVertebrataingeneral，evolutionismarkedbyan

increasingheterogeneityinthevertebralcolumn，andespeciallyinthecomponents

oftheskull:thehigherformsbeingdistinguishedbytherelativelylarger

sizeoftheboneswhichcoverthebrain，andtherelativelysmallersize

ofthosewhichformthejaws，etc。Nowthistrait，whichisstrongerinMan

thaninanyothercreature，isstrongerintheEuropeanthaninthesavage。

Moreover，fromthegreaterextentandvarietyoffacultyheexhibits，we

mayinferthatthecivilizedmanhasalsoamorecomplexorheterogeneous

nervoussystemthantheuncivilizedman;and，indeed，thefactisinpart

visibleintheincreasedratiowhichhiscerebrumbearstothesubjacent

ganglia。Iffurtherelucidationbeneeded，everynurseryfurnishesit。In

theinfantEuropeanweseesundryresemblancestothelowerhumanraces;

asintheflatnessofthealaeofthenose，thedepressionofitsbridge，

thedivergenceandforwardopeningofthenostrils，theformofthelips，

theabsenceofafrontalsinus，thewidthbetweentheeyes，thesmallness

ofthelegs。Nowasthedevelopmentalprocessbywhichthesetraitsareturned

intothoseoftheadultEuropean，isacontinuationofthatchangefromthe

homogeneoustotheheterogeneousdisplayedduringthepreviousevolution

oftheembryo;itfollowsthattheparalleldevelopmentalprocessbywhich

theliketraitsofthebarbarousraceshavebeenturnedintothoseofthe

civilizedraces，hasalsobeenacontinuationofthechangefromthehomogeneous

totheheterogeneous。Thetruthofthesecondstatementissoobviousas

scarcelytoneedillustration。EveryworkonEthnology，byitsdivisions

andsubdivisionsofraces，bearstestimonytoit。Evenwerewetoadmitthat

Mankindoriginatedfromseveralseparatestocks，itwouldstillremaintrue

thatas，fromeachofthesestocks，therehavesprungmanynowwidelydifferent

tribes，whichareprovedbyphilologicalevidencetohavehadacommonorigin，

theraceasawholeismoreheterogeneousthanitoncewas。Addtowhich

thatwehave，intheAnglo—Americans，anexampleofanewvarietyarising

withinthesefewgenerations;andthat，ifwemaytrusttothedescriptionsofobservers，wearelikelysoontohaveanothersuchinAustralia。###第27章§122。OnpassingfromHumanityunderitsindividualformtoHumanity

associallyembodied，wefindthegenerallawstillmorevariouslyexemplified。

Thechangefromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneousisdisplayedequally

intheprogressofcivilizationasawhole，andintheprogressofeverytribeornation;anditisstillgoingonwithincreasingrapidity。Societyinitsfirstandloweststageisahomogeneousassemblageofindividuals

havinglikepowersandlikefunctions:theonlymarkeddifferenceoffunction

beingthatwhichaccompaniesdifferenceofsex。Everymaniswarrior，hunter，

fisherman，tool—maker，builder;everywomanperformsthesamedrudgeries;

everyfamilyisself—sufficing，and，saveforpurposesofcompanionship，

aggression，anddefence，mightaswellliveapartfromtherest。Veryearly，

however，inthecourseofsocialevolution，wefindanincipientdifferentiation

betweenthegoverningandthegoverned。Somekindofchieftainshipsoonarises

aftertheadvancefromthestateofseparatewanderingfamiliestothatof

anomadictribe。Theauthorityofthestrongestandcunningestmakesitself

feltamongsavages，asinaherdofanimalsoraposseofschoolboys:especially

inwar。Atfirst，however，itisindefinite，uncertain;issharedbyothers

ofscarcelyinferiorpower;andisunaccompaniedbyanydifferenceinoccupation

orstyleofliving:thefirstrulerkillshisowngame，makeshisownweapons，

buildshisownhut，and，economicallyconsidered，doesnotdifferfromothers

ofhistribe。Alongwithconquestsandthemassingoftribes，thecontrast

betweenthegoverningandthegovernedgrowsmoredecided。Supremepower

becomeshereditaryinonefamily;thehead，firstmilitaryandthenpolitical，

ceasingtoprovideforhisownwants，isservedbyothers;andhebegins

toassumethesoleofficeofruling。Atthesametimetherehasbeenarising

aco—ordinatespeciesofgovernment——thatofReligion。Ancientrecords

andtraditionsshowthattheearliestconquerorsandkingscametoberegarded

asdivinepersonages。Themaximsandcommandstheyutteredduringtheirlives

wereheldsacredaftertheirdeaths，andwereenforcedbytheirdivinely—descended

successors;whointheirturnswerepromotedtothepantheonoftherace，

theretobeworshippedandpropitiatedalongwiththeirpredecessors。For

alongtimetheseconnateformsofgovernment——civilandreligious——remain

closelyassociated。Formanygenerationsthekingcontinuestobethechief

priest，andthepriesthoodtobemembersoftheroyalrace。Formanyages

religiouslawcontinuestocontainmoreorlessofcivilregulation，and

civillawtopossessmoreorlessofreligioussanction;andevenamongthe

mostadvancednationsthesetwocontrollingagenciesarebynomeanscompletely

differentiatedfromeachother。Havingacommonrootwiththese，andgradually

divergingfromthem，wefindyetanothercontrollingagency——thatofManners

orceremonialusages。Titlesofhonourwereoriginallythenamesofthegod—king;

afterwardsofGodandtheking;stilllaterofpersonsofhighrank;and

finallycame，someofthem，tobeusedbetweenmanandman。Formsofcomplimentary

addresswereatfirstexpressionsofpropitiationfromprisonerstotheir

conqueror，orfromsubjectstotheirruler，eitherhumanordivine——expressions

thatwereafterwardsusedsubordinateauthorities，andslowlydescendedinto

ordinaryintercourse。Modesofsalutationwereoncesignsofsubjectionto

avictor，afterwardsobeisancesmadebeforethemonarchandusedinworship

ofhimwhendead。Presentlyothersofthegod—descendedraceweresimilarly

saluted;andbydegreessomeofthesalutationshavebecomethedueofall。*<*

Fordetailedproofseeessayon"MannersandFashion"inEssays，

etc。，Vol。III。>Thus，nosoonerdoestheoriginallyhomogeneoussocial

massdifferentiateintothegovernedandthegoverningparts，thanthislast

exhibitsanincipientdifferentiationintoreligiousandsecular—Churchand

State;whileatthesametimeorstillearliertherebeginstotakeshape，

thatlessdefinitespeciesofgovernmentwhichrulesourdailyintercourse

——aspeciesofgovernmentwhich，aswemayseeinheralds\'colleges，in

booksofthepeerage，inmastersofceremonies，isnotwithoutacertain

embodimentofitsown。Eachofthesekindsofgovernmentisitselfsubject

tosuccessivedifferentiations。Inthecourseofages，therearises，asamong

ourselves，ahighlycomplexpoliticalorganizationofmonarch，ministers，

lordsandcommons，withtheirsubordinateadministrativedepartments，courts

ofjustice，revenueoffices，etc。，supplementedintheprovincesbymunicipal

governments，countygovernments，parishoruniongovernments——allofthem

moreorlesselaborated。Byitssidetheregrowsupahighlycomplexreligious

organization，withitsvariousgradesofofficialsfromarchbishopsdown

tosextons，itscolleges，convocations，ecclesiasticalcourts，etc。;toall

whichmustbeaddedtheever—multiplyingindependentsects，eachwithits

generalandlocalauthorities。Andsimultaneouslythereisdevelopedacomplicated

systemofcustoms，manners，andtemporaryfashions，enforcedbysocietyat

large，andservingtocontrolthoseminortransactionsbetweenmanandman

whicharenotregulatedbycivilandreligiouslaw。Moreover，itistobe

observedthatthisincreasingheterogeneityinthegovernmentalappliances

ofeachnation，hasbeenaccompaniedbyanincreasingheterogeneityinthe

governmentalappliancesofdifferentnations。Allpeoplesaremoreorless

unlikeintheirpoliticalsystemsandlegislation，intheircreedsandreligiousinstitutions，intheircustomsandceremonialusages。Meanwhiletherehasbeengoingonadifferentiationofamorefamiliar

kind;that，namely，bywhichthemassofthecommunityhasbeensegregated

intodistinctclassesandordersofworkers。Whilethegoverningparthas

undergonethecomplexdevelopmentaboveindicated，thegovernedparthas

undergoneamorecomplexdevelopment，whichhasresultedinthatminutedivision

oflabourcharacterizingadvancednations。Itisneedlesstotraceoutthis

progressfromitsfirststages，upthroughthecaste—divisionsoftheEast

andtheincorporatedguildsofEurope，totheelaborateproducinganddistributing

organizationexistingamongourselves。Politicaleconomistshavelongsince

describedtheindustrialprogresswhich，throughincreasingdivisionoflabour，

endswithacivilizedcommunitywhosemembersseverallyperformdifferent

actionsforoneanother;andtheyhavefurtherpointedoutthechangesthrough

whichthesolitaryproducerofanyonecommodity，istransformedintoacombination

ofproducerswho，unitedunderamaster，takeseparatepartsinthemanufacture

ofsuchcommodity。Butthereareyetotherandhigherphasesofthisadvance

fromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneousintheindustrialorganization

ofsociety。Longafterconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeinthedivision

oflabouramongthedifferentclassesofworkers，thereisrelativelylittle

divisionoflabouramongthewidelyseparatedpartsofthecommunity:the

nationcontinuescomparativelyhomogeneousintherespectthatineachdistrict

thesameoccupationsarepursued。Butwhenroadsandothermeansoftransit

becomenumerousandgood，thedifferentdistrictsbegintoassumedifferent

functions，andtobecomemutuallydependent。Thecalico—manufacturelocates

itselfinthiscounty，thewoollen—manufactureinthat;silksareproduced

here，lacethere;stockingsinoneplace，shoesinanother;pottery，hardware，

cutlery，cometohavetheirspecialtowns;andultimatelyeverylocality

growsmoreorlessdistinguishedfromtherestbytheleadingoccupation

carriedoninit。Nay，more，thissubdivisionoffunctionsshowsitselfnot

onlyamongthedifferentpartsofthesamenation，butamongdifferentnations。

Thatexchangeofcommoditieswhichfree—tradepromisessogreatlytoincrease，

willultimatelyhavetheeffectofspecializing，inagreaterorlessdegree，

theindustryofeachpeople。Sothatbeginningwithaprimitivetribe，almost

ifnotquitehomogeneousinthefunctionsofitsmembers，theprogresshas

been，andstillis，towardsaneconomicaggregationofthewholehumanrace;

growingevermoreheterogeneousinrespectoftheseparatefunctionsassumed

byseparatenations，theseparatefunctionsassumedbythelocalsections

ofeachnation，theseparatefunctionsassumedbythemanykindsofproducers

ineachplace，andtheseparatefunctionsassumedbytheworkersunitedin

growingormakingeachcommodity。Andthen，lastly，hastobenamedthevast

organizationofdistributers，wholesaleandretail，formingsoconspicuous

anelementinourtown—populations，whichisbecomingevermorespecializedinitsstructure。§123。Notonlyisthelawthusexemplifiedintheevolutionofthe

socialorganism，butitisexemplifiedintheevolutionofallproductsof

humanthoughtandaction，whetherconcreteorabstract，realorideal。LetustakeLanguageasourfirstillustration。Thelowestformoflanguageistheexclamation，bywhichanentireidea

isvaguelyconveyedthroughasinglesound;asamongtheloweranimals。That

humanlanguageeverconsistedsolelyofexclamations，andsowasstrictly

homogeneousinrespectofitspartsofspeech，wehavenoevidence。Butthat

languagecanbetraceddowntoaforminwhichnounsandverbsareitsonly

elements，isanestablishedfact。Inthegradualmultiplicationofparts

ofspeechoutoftheseprimaryones——inthedifferentiationofverbsinto

activeandPassive，ofnounsintoabstractandconcrete—intheriseof

distinctionsofmood，tense，person，ornumberandcase——intheformation

ofauxiliaryverbs，ofadjectives，adverbs，pronouns，prepositions，articles

——inthedivergenceofthoseorders，genera，species，andvarietiesofparts

ofspeechbywhichcivilizedracesexpressminutemodificationsofmeaning;

weseeachangefromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneous。Anditmaybe

remarkedthatitismoreespeciallybecauseithascarriedthissubdivision

offunctionsfurtherthananyotherlanguage，thattheEnglishlanguageis

structurallysuperior。Anotherprocessthroughoutwhichwemaytracethe

developmentoflanguage，isthedifferentiationofwordsofalliedmeanings。

Philologyearlydisclosedthetruththatinalllanguageswordsmaybegrouped

intofamilieshavingeachacommonancestry。Anaboriginalname，applied

indiscriminatelytoeachmemberofanextensiveandill—definedclassof

thingsoractions，presentlyundergoesmodificationsbywhichthechiefdivisions

oftheclassareexpressed。Theseseveralnamesspringingfromtheprimitive

root，themselvesbecometheparentsofothernamesstillfurthermodified。

Andbytheaidofthosesystematicmodes，whichpresentlyarise，ofmaking

derivativesandformingcompoundsexpressingstillsmallerdistinctions，

thereisfinallydevelopedatribeofwordssoheterogeneousinsoundand

meaning，thattotheinitiateditseemsincredibletheyshouldhavehada

commonorigin。Meanwhile，fromotherrootstherearebeingevolvedother

suchtribes，untilthereresultsalanguageofahundredthousanddifferent

words，signifyingasmanydifferentobjects，qualities，acts。Yetanother

wayinwhichlanguageadvancesfromthehomogeneoustotheheterogeneous，

isbythemultiplicationoflanguages。Whether，asMaxMüllerandBunsen

think，alllanguageshavegrownfromonestock，orwhether，assomephilologists

say，theyhavegrownfromtwoormorestocks，itisclearthatsincelarge

familiesoflanguages，astheIndo—European，areofoneparentage，there

havearisenmultipliedkindsthroughaprocessofcontinuousdivergence。

ThediffusionovertheEarth\'ssurfacewhichhasledtodifferentiationof

therace，hassimultaneouslyledtodifferentiationofitsspeech:atruth

whichweseefurtherillustratedineachcountrybythedialectsfoundin

separatedistricts。Thuslinguisticchangesconformtothegenerallaw，alike

intheevolutionoflanguages，intheevolutionoffamiliesofwords，and

intheevolutionofpartsofspeech。Ifinourconceptionoflanguagewe

includenotitscomponentwordsonlybutthosecombinationsofthembywhich

distinctideasareconveyed——namelysentences——wehavetorecognizeone

moreaspectofitsprogressfromhomogeneitytoheterogeneitywhichhasaccompanied

theprogressinintegration。Rudespeechconsistsofsimplepropositions

havingsubjectsandpredicatesindefinitelylinked;andanythinglikeacomplex

meaningisconveyedbyasuccessionofsuchpropositionsconnectedonlyby

juxtaposition。Eveninthespeechofcomparativelydevelopedpeoples，as

theHebrews，wefindverylittlecomplexity。Compareanumberofversesfrom

theBiblewithsomeparagraphsfromamodernwriter，andtheincreasein

heterogeneityofstructureisveryconspicuous。Andbeyondthefactthat

manyofourordinarysentencesarebythesupplementaryclauses，secondary

propositions，andqualifyingphrasestheycontainmaderelativelyinvolved，

thereisthefactthatthereisgreatvarietyamongthesentencesinapage:

nowlong，nowshort，nowformedinoneway，nowinanother，sothatadoubleprogressinheterogeneityinthestyleofcompositionisdisplayed。Onpassingfromspokentowrittenlanguage，wecomeuponseveralclasses

offacts，havingsimilarimplications。WrittenlanguageisconnatewithPainting

andSculpture;andatfirstallthreeareappendagesofArchitecture，and

haveadirectconnexionwiththeearlyformofsettledgovernment——the

theocratic。Merelynotingthefactthatsundrywildraces，astheAustralians

andthetribesofSouthAfrica，aregiventodepictingpersonagesandevents

onthewallsofcaves，whichareprobablyregardedassacredplaces，let

uspasstothecaseoftheEgyptians。Amongthem，asalsoamongtheAssyrians，

weseemuralpaintingsusedtodecoratethetempleofthegodandthepalace

oftheking（whichwere，indeed，originallyidentical）;andassuchthey

weregovernmentalappliancesinthesamesensethatstage—pageantsandreligious

feastswere。Further，theyweregovernmentalappliancesinvirtueofrepresenting

theworshipofthegod，thetriumphsofthegod—king，thesubmissionofhis

subjects，andthepunishmentoftherebellious。Andyetagaintheyweregovernmental，

asbeingtheproductsofanartreverencedbythepeopleasasacredmystery。

Fromtheconstantuseofthispictorialrepresentation，theregrewupthe

butslightly—modifiedpracticeofpicture—writing——apracticewhichwas

foundstillextantamongtheMexicansatthetimetheywerediscovered。By

abbreviationsanalogoustothosestillgoingoninourownlanguage，the

mostfamiliarofthesepicturedfiguresweresuccessivelysimplified;and

ultimatelytheregrewupsymbols，mostofwhichhadbutdistantresemblances

tothethingsforwhichtheystood。Theinferencethatthehieroglyphics

oftheEgyptiansthusarose，isconfirmedbythefactthatthepicture—writing

oftheMexicanswasfoundtohavegivenbirthtoalikefamilyofideographic

forms;andamongthem，asamongtheEgyptians，thesehadbeenpartiallydifferentiated

intothekuriologicalorimitative，andthetropicalorsymbolic:whichwere，

however，usedtogetherinthesamerecord。InEgypt，writtenlanguageunderwent

afurtherdifferentiation，resultinginthehieraticandtheepistolographic

orenchorial:bothderivedfromtheoriginalhieroglyphic。Atthesametime

forpropernames，whichcouldnotbeotherwiseexpressed，phoneticsymbols

wereemployed;andthoughtheEgyptiansneverachievedcompletealphabetic

writing，yetitcanscarcelybedoubtedthatamongotherpeoplesphonetic

symbols，occasionallyusedinaidofideographicones，werethegermsout

ofwhichalphabeticwritingarose。Oncehavingbecomeseparatefromhieroglyphics，

alphabeticwritingitselfunderwentnumerousdifferentiations——multiplied

alphabetswereproduced:betweenmostofwhich，however，connexionscanstill

betraced。Andineachcivilizednationtherehavenowgrownup，forthe

representationofonesetofsounds，severalsetsofwrittensigns，used

fordistinctpurposes。Finally，throughayetmoreimportantdifferentiation

cameprinting;which，uniforminkindasitwasatfirst，hassincebecomemultiform。§124。Whilewrittenlanguagewaspassingthroughitsearlierstages

ofdevelopment，themuraldecorationwhichformeditsrootwasbeingdifferentiated

intoPaintingandSculpture。Thegods，kings，men，andanimalsrepresented，

wereoriginallymarkedbyindentedoutlinesandcoloured。Inmostcasesthese

outlineswereofsuchdepth，andtheobjecttheycircumscribedsofarrounded，

astoformaspeciesofworkintermediatebetweenintaglioandbas—relief。

Inothercasesweseeanadvanceuponthis:thespacesbetweenthefigures

beingchiselledout，andthefiguresthemselvesappropriatelytinted，apainted

bas—reliefwasproduced。TherestoredAssyrianarchitectureatSydenhamexhibits

thisstyleofartcarriedtogreaterperfection:thepersonsandthingsrepresented，

thoughstillbarbarouslycoloured，arecarvedwithmoretruthandingreater

detail;andinthewingedlionsandbullsusedfortheanglesofgateways，

weseeadvancetowardsacompletelysculpturedfigure;which，nevertheless，

isstillcolouredandstillformspartofthebuilding。ButthoughinAssyria

theproductionofastatueproperseemstohavebeenlittle，ifatall，attempted，

wemaytraceinEgyptianartthegradualseparationofthesculpturedfigure

fromthewall。WhileawalkthroughthecollectionintheBritishMuseum

willaffordanopportunityofobservingtransitions，itwillbringintoview

muchevidencethattheindependentstatueswerederivedfrombas—reliefs:

newlyallofthemnotonlydisplaythatlateralattachmentofthearmswith

thebodywhichisacharacteristicofbas—relief，buthavethebackofthe

statueunitedfromheadtofootwithablockwhichstandsinplaceofthe

originalwall。Greecerepeatedtheleadingstagesofthisprogress。Asin

EgyptandAssyria，thesetwinartswereatfirstunitedwitheachotherand

withtheirparent，Architecture;andwereaidsofReligionandGovernment。

OnthefriezesofGreektemples，weseecolouredbas—reliefsrepresenting

sacrifices，battles，processions，games——allinsomesortreligious。On

thepedimentsweseepaintedsculpturespartiallyunitedwiththetympanum，

andhavingforsubjectsthetriumphsofgodsorheroes。Evenwhenwecome

tostatuesthataredefinitelyseparatedfromthebuildingstowhichthey

pertain，westillfindthemcoloured;andonlyinthelaterperiodsofGreek

civilization，doesthedifferentiationofpaintingfromsculptureappear

tohavebecomecomplete。InChristianartthereoccurredaparallelre—genesis。

AllearlypaintingsandsculpturesthroughoutEuropewerereligiousinsubject

——representedChrists，crucifixions，virgins，holyfamilies，apostles，saints。

Theyformedintegralpartsofchurcharchitecture，andwereamongthemeans

ofexcitingworship:asinRomanCatholiccountriestheystillare。Moreover，

theearlysculpturesofChristonthecross，ofvirgins，ofsaints，were

coloured;anditneedsbuttocalltomindthepaintedmadonnasandcrucifixes

stillabundantincontinentalchurches，toperceivethesignificantfact

thatpaintingandsculpturecontinueinclosestconnexionwitheachother，

wheretheycontinueinclosestconnexionwiththeirparent。EvenwhenChristian

sculpturebecomeseparatefrompainting，itwasstillatfirstreligious

andgovernmentalinitssubjects——wasusedfortombsinchurchesandstatues

ofsaintsandkings;while，atthesametime，painting，wherenotpurely

ecclesiastical，wasappliedtothedecorationofpalaces，andafterrepresenting

royalpersonages，wasalmostwhollydevotedtosacredlegends。Onlyinmodern

timeshavepaintingandsculpturebecomeentirelyseculararts。Onlywithin

thesefewcenturieshaspaintingbeendividedintohistorical，landscape，

marine，architectural，animal，still—life，etc。，andsculpturegrownheterogeneous

inrespectofthevarietyofrealandidealsubjectswithwhichitoccupiesitself。Strangeasitseemsthen，allformsofwrittenlanguage，ofpainting，

ofsculpture，haveacommonrootinthoserudedrawingsonskinsandcavern—walls

bywhichsavagescommemoratednotabledeedsoftheirchiefs，andwhich，during

socialprogress，developedintothepolitico—religiousdecorationsofancient

templesandpalaces。Littleresemblanceastheynowhave，thebustthatstands

ontheconsole，thelandscapethathangsagainstthewall，andthecopyofTheTimeslyinguponthetable，areremotelyakin。Thebrazenface

oftheknockerwhichthepostmanhasjustlifted，isrelatednotonlyto

thewoodcutsoftheIllustratedLondonNewswhichheisdelivering，

buttothecharactersofthebillet—douxwhichaccompaniesit。Betweenthe

paintedwindowtheprayer—bookonwhichitslightfalls，andtheadjacent

monument，thereisconsanguinity。Theeffigiesonourcoins，thesignsover

shops，thefiguresthatfilleveryledger，thecoat—of—armsoutsidethecarriage—panel，

andtheplacardsinsidetheomnibus，are，incommonwithdolls，blue—books，

andpaper—hangings，lineallydescendedfromthesculpture—paintingsandpicture—writings

inwhichtheEgyptiansrepresentedandrecordedthetriumphsandworship

oftheirgod—kings。Perhapsnoexamplecanbegivenwhichmorevividlyillustrates

themultiplicityandheterogeneityoftheproductsthatincourseoftimemayarisebysuccessivedifferentiationsfromacommonstock。Thetransformationofthehomogeneousintotheheterogeneousthusdisplayed

intheseparationofPaintingandSculpturefromArchitectureandfromeach

other，andinthegreatervarietyofsubjectstheyembody，isfurtherdisplayed

inthestructureofeachwork。Amodernpictureorstatueisoffarmore

complexnaturethananancientone。AnEgyptiansculpture—frescorepresents

allitsfiguresasononeplane——thatis，atthesamedistancefromthe

eye;andsoislessheterogeneousthanapaintingthatrepresentsthemas

atvariousdistances。Itexhibitsallobjectsassimilarlylighted;andso

islessheterogeneousthanapaintingwhichexhibitsdifferentobjects，and

differentpartsofeachobject，asindifferentdegreesoflight。Ituses

scarcelyanybuttheprimarycolours，andtheseintheirfullintensities;