第10章

PartII

TheKnowableChapter1PhilosophyDefined§35。Afterconcludingthatwecannotknowtheultimatenatureof

thatwhichismanifestedtous，therearisethequestions——Whatisitthat

weknow？Inwhatsensedoweknowit？Andinwhatconsistsourhighestknowledge

ofit？HavingrepudiatedasimpossiblethePhilosophywhichprofessesto

formulateBeingasdistinguishedfromAppearance，itbecomesneedfultosay

whatPhilosophytrulyis——notsimplytospecifyitslimits，buttospecify

itscharacterwithinthoselimits。Giventhespheretowhichhumanintelligence

isrestricted，andthereremainstodefinethatproductofhumanintelligencewhichmaystillbecalledPhilosophy。Here，wemayfitlyavailourselvesofthemethodfollowedattheoutset

——thatofseparatingfromconceptionswhicharepartial1yormainlyerroneous，

theelementoftruththeycontain。Asinthechapteron"Religionand

Science，"itwasinferredthatreligiousbeliefs，wrongastheymay

severallybe，neverthelessprobablyeachcontainanessentialverity，and

thatthisismostlikelycommontothemall;sointhisplaceitistobe

inferredthatpastandpresentbeliefsrespectingthenatureofPhilosophy，

arenoneofthemwhollyfalse，andthatthatinwhichtheyaretrueisthat

inwhichtheyagree。Wehavehere，then，todowhatwasdonethere——to

compareallopinionsofthesamegenus;tosetasideasmoreorlessdiscrediting

oneanotherthoseelementsinwhichsuchopinionsdiffer;toobservewhat

remainsafterthediscordantcomponentshavebeencancelled;andtofind

forthisremainingcomponentthatexpressionwhichholdstruethroughoutitsdivergentforms。§36。Earlierspeculationsbeingpassedoverweseethatamongthe

Greeks，beforetherehadarisenanynotionofPhilosophyingeneral，those

particularformsofitfromwhichthegeneralnotionwastoarise，werehypotheses

respectingsomeuniversalprinciplewhichwastheessenceofallkindsof

being。Tothequestion——"Whatisthatinvariableexistenceofwhich

thesearevariablestates？"thereweresundryanswers——Water，Air，

Fire。Aclassofsuppositionsofthisall—embracingcharacterhavingbeen

propounded，itbecamePossibleforPythagorastoconceiveofPhilosophyin

theabstract，asknowledgethemostremotefrompracticalends;andtodefine

itas"knowledgeofimmaterialandeternalthings;""thecause

ofthematerialexistenceofthings"being，inhisview，Number。Thereafter，

wascontinuedapursuitofPhilosophyassomedeepestexplanationofthe

Universe，assumedtobepossible，whetheractuallyreachedinanycaseor

not。Andinthecourseofthispursuit，varioussuchinterpretationswere

givenasthat"Oneisthebeginningofallthings;"that"the

OneisGod;"that"theOneisFinite;"that"theOne

isInfinite;"that"Intelligenceisthegoverningprincipleof

things;"andsoon。Fromallwhichitisplainthattheknowledgesupposed

toconstitutePhilosophy，differedfromotherknowledgeinitsexhaustive

character。AftertheScepticshadshakenmen\'sfaithintheirpowersofreaching

suchtranscendentknowledge，theregrewupamuch—restrictedconceptionof

Philosophy。UnderSocrates，andstillmoreundertheStoics，Philosophybecame

littleelsethanthedoctrineofrightliving。Notindeedthattheproper

rulingofconduct，asconceivedbysundryofthelaterGreekthinkersto

constitutethesubject—matterofPhilosophy，answeredtowhatwaspopularly

understoodbytheproperrulingofconduct。TheinjunctionsofZenowere

notofthesameclassasthosewhichguidedmenintheirdailyobservances，

sacrifices，customs，allhavingmoreorlessofreligioussanction;butthey

wereprinciplesofactionenunciatedwithoutreferencetotimes，orpersons，

orspecialcases。What，then，wastheconstantelementintheseunlikeideas

ofPhilosophyheldbytheancients？Clearlythislastideaagreeswiththe

first，inimplyingthatPhilosophyseeksforwideanddeeptruths，asdistinguished

fromthemultitudinousdetailedtruthswhichthesurfacesofthingsandactions

present。BycomparingtheconceptionsofPhilosophythathavebeencurrentinmoderntimes，wegetalikeresult。ThedisciplesofSchellingandFichtejointheHegelianinridiculing

theso—calledPhilosophywhichhasbeencurrentinEngland。Notwithoutreason，

theylaughonreadingof"Philosophicalinstruments;"andwould

denythatanyoneofthepapersinthePhilosophicalTransactionshastheleastclaimtocomeundersuchatitle。Retaliatingontheircritics，

theEnglishmay，andmostofthemdo，rejectasabsurdtheimaginedPhilosophy

oftheGermanschools。Theyholdthatwhetherconsciousnessdoesordoes

notvouchfortheexistenceofsomethingbeyonditself，itatanyratecannot

comprehendthatsomething;andthathence，insofarasanyPhilosophyprofesses

tobeanOntology，itisfalse。Thesetwoviewscanceloneanotheroverlarge

partsoftheirareas。TheEnglishcriticismontheGermans，cutsofffrom

Philosophyallthatisregardedasabsoluteknowledge。TheGermancriticism

ontheEnglishtacitlyimpliesthatifPhilosophyislimitedtotherelative，

itisatanyratenotconcernedwiththoseaspectsoftherelativewhich

areembodiedinmathematicalformulae，inaccountsofphysicalresearches，

inchemicalanalyses，orindescriptionsofspeciesandreportsofphysiological

experiments。Nowwhathasthetoo—wideGermanconceptionincommonwiththe

conceptioncurrentamongEnglishmenofscience;which，narrowandcrude

asitis，isnotsonarrowandcrudeastheirmisuseofthewordphilosophical

indicates？Thetwohavethisincommon，thatneitherGermansnorEnglish

applythewordtounsystematizedknowledge——toknowledgequiteun—co—ordinated

withotherknowledge。Eventhemostlimitedspecialistwouldnotdescribe

asphilosophical，anessaywhich，dealingwhollywithdetails，manifestednoperceptionofthebearingsofthosedetailsonwidertruths。ThevagueideaofPhilosophythusraisedmayberenderedmoredefinite

bycomparingwhathasbeenknowninEnglandasNaturalPhilosophywiththat

developmentofitcalledPositivePhilosophy。Though，asM。Comteadmits，

thetwoconsistofknowledgeessentiallythesameinkind;yet，byhaving

putthiskindofknowledgeintoamorecoherentform，hehasgivenitmore

ofthatcharactertowhichthetermphilosophicalisapplied。Withoutsaying

anythingaboutthecharacterofhisco—ordination，itmustbeconcededthat，

bythefactofitsco—ordination，thebodyofknowledgeorganizedbyhim

hasabetterclaimtothetitlePhilosophy，thanhasthecomparatively—unorganizedbodyofknowledgenamedNaturalPhilosophy。IfsubdivisionsofPhilosophybecontrastedwithoneanotherorwiththe

whole，thesameimplicationcomesout。MoralPhilosophyandPoliticalPhilosophy，

agreewithPhilosophyatlargeinthecomprehensivenessoftheirreasonings

andconclusions。ThoughundertheheadMoralPhilosophy，wetreatofhuman

actionsasrightorwrong，wedonotincludespecialdirectionsforbehaviour

inschool，attable，orontheExchange;andthoughPoliticalPhilosophy

hasforitstopictheconductofmenintheirpublicrelations，itdoesnot

concertitselfwithmodesofvotingordetailsofadministration。Bothof

thesesectionsofPhilosophycontemplateparticularinstancesonlyasillustratingtruthsofwideapplication。§37。Thuseveryoneoftheseconceptionsimpliesbeliefinapossible

wayofknowingthingsmorecompletelythantheyareknownthroughsimple

experiences，mechanicallyaccumulatedinmemoryorheapedupincyclopaedias。

ThoughintheextentofthespherewhichtheyhavesupposedPhilosophyto

fill，menhavedifferedandstilldifferverywidely;yetthereisareal

ifunavowedagreementamongtheminsignifyingbythistitleaknowledge

whichtranscendsordinaryknowledge。Thatwhichremainsasthecommonelement

intheseconceptionsofPhilosophy，aftertheeliminationoftheirdiscordant

elements，is——knowledgeofthehighestdegreeofgenerality。Weseethis

tacitlyassertedbythesimultaneousinclusionofGod，Nature，andMan，within

itsscope;orstillmoredistinctlybythedivisionofPhilosophyasawhole

intoTheological，Physical，Ethical，etc。Forthatwhichcharacterizesthe

genusofwhichthesearespecies，mustbesomethingmoregeneralthanthatwhichdistinguishesanyonespecies。Whatmustbetheshapeheregiventothisconception？Thoughpersistently

consciousofaPowermanifestedtous，wehaveabandonedasfutiletheattempt

tolearnanythingrespectingthatPower，andsohaveshutoutPhilosophy

frommuchofthedomainsupposedtobelongtoit。Thedomainleftisthat

occupiedbyScience。Scienceconcertsitselfwiththeco—existencesandsequences

amongphenomena;groupingtheseatfirstintogeneralizationsofasimple

orloworder，andrisinggraduallytohigherandmoreextendedgeneralizations。Butifso，whereremainsanysubject—matterforPhilosophy？Thereplyis——Philosophymaystillproperlybethetitleretainedfor

knowledgeofthehighestgenerality。Sciencemeansmerelythefamilyofthe

Sciences——standsfornothingmorethanthesumofknowledgeformedoftheir

contributions;andignorestheknowledgeconstitutedbythefusionofthese

contributionsintoawhole。Asusagehasdefinedit，Scienceconsistsof

truthsexistingmoreorlessseparated，anddoesnotrecognizethesetruthsasentirelyintegrated。Anillustrationwillmakethedifferenceclear。Ifweascribetheflowofarivertothesameforcewhichcausesthefall

ofastone，wemakeastatementthatbelongstoacertaindivisionofScience。

If，toexplainhowgravitationproducesthismovementinadirectionalmost

horizontal，wecitethelawthatfluidssubjecttomechanicalforcesexert

re—activeforceswhichareequalinalldirections，weformulateawider

truth，containingthescientificinterpretationsofmanyotherphenomena;

asthosepresentedbythefountain，thehydraulicpress，thesteam—engine，

theair—pump。Andwhenthisproposition，extendingonlytothedynamicsof

fluids，ismergedinapropositionofgeneraldynamics，comprehendingthe

lawsofmovementofsolidsaswellasoffluids，thereisreachedayethigher

truth;butstillatruththatcomeswhollywithintherealmofScience。Again，

lookingaroundatBirdsandMammals，supposewesaythatair—breathinganimals

arehot—blooded;andthatthen，rememberinghowReptiles，whichalsobreathe

air，arenotmuchwarmerthantheirmedia，wesay，moretruly，thatanimals

（bulksbeingequal）havetemperaturesproportionatetothequantitiesof

airtheybreathe;andthatthen，callingtomindcertainlargefish，asthe

tunny，whichmaintainaheatconsiderablyabovethatofthewatertheyswim

in，wefurthercorrectthegeneralizationbysayingthatthetemperature

variesastherateofoxygenationoftheblood;andthatthen，modifying

thestatementtomeetothercriticisms，wefinallyasserttherelationto

bebetweentheamountofheatandtheamountofmolecularchange——supposing

wedoallthis，westatescientifictruthsthataresuccessivelywiderand

morecomplete，buttruthswhich，tothelast，remainpurelyscientific。Once

moreif，guidedbymercantileexperiences，wereachtheconclusionsthat

pricesrisewhenthedemandexceedsthesupply;thatcommoditiesflowfrom

placeswheretheyareabundanttoplaceswheretheyarescarce;thatthe

industriesofdifferentlocalitiesaredeterminedintheirkindsmainlyby

thefacilitieswhichthelocalitiesaffordforthem;andif，studyingthese

generalizationsofpoliticaleconomy，wetracethemalltothetruththat

eachmanseekssatisfactionforhisdesiresinwayscostingthesmallest

efforts——suchsocialphenomenabeingresultantsofindividualactionssoguided;wearestilldealingwiththepropositionsofScienceonly。How，then，isPhilosophyconstituted？Itisconstitutedbycarryinga

stagefurthertheprocessindicated。Solongasthesetruthsareknownonly

apartandregardedasindependent，eventhemostgeneralofthemcannotwithout

laxityofspeechbecalledphilosophical。Butwhen，havingbeenseverally

reducedtoamechanicalaxiom，aprincipleofmolecularphysics，andalaw

ofsocialaction，theyarecontemplatedtogetherascorollariesofsomeultimate

truth，thenwerisetothekindofknowledgewhichconstitutesPhilosophyproper。ThetruthsofPhilosophythusbearthesamerelationtothehighestscientific

truths，thateachofthesebearstolowerscientifictruths。Aseachwidest

generalizationofSciencecomprehendsandconsolidatesthenarrowergeneralizations

ofitsowndivision;sothegeneralizationsofPhilosophycomprehendand

consolidatethewidestgeneralizationsofScience。Itisthereforeaknowledge

theextremeoppositeinkindtothatwhichexperiencefirstaccumulates。

Itisthefinalproductofthatprocesswhichbeginswithamerecolligation

ofcrudeobservations，goesonestablishingpropositionsthatarebroader

andmoreseparatedfromparticularcases，andendsinuniversalpropositions。

Ortobringthedefinitiontoitssimplestandclearestform:——Knowledge

ofthelowestkindisun—unifiedknowledge;Scienceispartially—unifiedknowledge;Philosophyiscompletely—unifiedknowledge。§38。Such，atleast，isthemeaningwemustheregivetotheword

Philosophy，ifweemployitatall。Insodefiningit，weacceptthatwhich

iscommontothevariousconceptionsofitcurrentamongbothancientsand

moderns——rejectingthoseelementsinwhichtheseconceptionsdisagree。

Inshort，wearesimplygivingprecisiontothatapplicationofthewordwhichhasbeengraduallyestablishingitself。TwoformsofPhilosophyasthusunderstood，maybedistinguishedanddealt

withseparately。Ontheonehand，thethingscontemplatedmaybetheuniversal

truths:allparticulartruthsreferredtobeingusedsimplyforproofor

elucidationoftheseuniversaltruths。Ontheotherhand，settingoutwith

theuniversaltruths，thethingscontemplatedmaybetheparticulartruths

asinterpretedbythem。Inbothcaseswedealwiththeuniversaltruths;

butintheonecasetheyarepassiveandintheothercaseactive——inthe

onecasetheyformtheproductsofexplorationandintheothercasethe

instrumentsofexploration。ThesedivisionswemayappropriatelycallGeneralPhilosophyandSpecialPhilosophyrespectively。TheremainderofthisvolumewillhedevotedtoGeneralPhilosophy。Special

Philosophy，dividedintopartsdeterminedbythenaturesofthephenomena

treated，willbethesubject—matterofsubsequentvolumes。

Chapter2TheDataofPhilosophy§39。Everythoughtinvolvesawholesystemofthoughtsandceases

toexistifseveredfromitsvariouscorrelatives。Aswecannotisolatea

singleorganofalivingbody，anddealwithitasthoughithadalifeindependent

oftherest，so，fromtheorganizedstructureofourcognitions，wecannot

cutoutone，andproceedasthoughithadsurvivedtheseparation。Thedevelopment

offormlessprotoplasmintoanembryoisaspecializationofparts，thedefiniteness

ofwhichincreasesonlyasfastastheircombinationincreases。Eachbecomes

adistinguishableorganonlyonconditionthatitisboundupwithothers，

whichhavesimultaneouslybecomedistinguishableorgans。Similarly，from

theunformedmaterialofconsciousness，adevelopedintelligencecanarise

onlybyaprocesswhich，inmakingthoughtsdefinedalsomakesthemmutually

dependent——establishesamongthemcertainvitalconnexionsthedestruction

ofwhichcausesinstantdeathofthethoughts。Overlookingthisall—important

truth，however，speculatorshavehabituallysetoutwithsomeprofessedly

——simpledatumordata;havesupposedthemselvestoassumenothingbeyond

thisdatumorthesedata;andhavethereuponproceededtoproveordisprove

propositionswhichwere，byimplication，alreadyunconsciouslyassertedalongwiththatwhichwasconsciouslyasserted。Thisreasoninginacirclehasresultedfromthemisuseofwords:not

thatmisusecommonlyenlargedupon——notthemisapplicationorchangeof

meaningwhencesomucherrorarises;butamoreradicalandlessobvious

misuse。Onlythatthoughtwhichisdirectlyindicatedbyeachwordhasbeen

contemplated;whilenumerousthoughtsindirectlyindicatedhavebeenleft

outofconsideration。Becauseaspokenorwrittenwordcanbedetachedfrom

allothers，ithasbeeninadvertentlyassumedthatthethingsignifiedby

awordcanbedetachedfromthethingssignifiedbyallotherwords。How

profoundlythiserrorvitiatestheconclusionsofonewhomakesit，weshall

quicklyseeontakingacase。Thescepticalmetaphysician，wishinghisreasonings

tobeasrigorousaspossible，saystohimself——"Iwilltakeforgranted

onlythisonething。"Whatnowarethetacitassumptionsinseparable

fromhisavowedassumption？Theresolveitselfindirectlyassertsthatthere

issomeotherthing，oraresomeotherthings，whichhemightassume;for

itisimpossibletothinkofunitywithoutthinkingofacorrelativeduality

ormultiplicity。Intheveryact，therefore，ofrestrictinghimself，hetakes

inmuchthatisprofessedlyleftout。Again，beforeproceedinghemustgive

adefinitionofthatwhichheassumes。Isnothingunexpressedinvolvedin

thethoughtofathingasdefined？Thereisthethoughtofsomethingexcluded

bythedefinition——thereis，asbefore，thethoughtofotherexistence。

Butthereismuchmore。Definingathing，orsettingalimittoit，implies

thethoughtofalimit;andlimitcannotbethoughtofapartfromsomenotion

ofquantityextensive，protensive，orintensive。Further，definitionisimpossible

unlessthereentersintoitthethoughtofdifference;anddifference，besides

beingunthinkablewithouthavingtwothingsthatdiffer，impliestheexistence

ofotherdifferencesthantheonerecognized;sincewithoutthemtherecannot

havebeenformedthegeneralconceptionofdifference。Noristhisall。As

beforepottedout（§24）allthoughtinvolvestheconsciousnessoflikeness:

theonethingavowedlypostulatedcannotbeknownabsolutelyasonething，

butcanbeknownonlyasofsuchorsuchkind——onlyasclassedwithother

thingsinvirtueofsomecommonattribute。Thus，alongwiththesingleavowed

datum，wehavesurreptitiouslybroughtinanumberofunavoweddata——existence

otherthanthatalleged，quantity，number，limit，difference，likeness，class，

attribute。Nowintheseunacknowledgedpostulates，wehavetheoutlinesof

ageneraltheory;andthattheorycanbeneitherprovednordisprovedby

themetaphysician\'sargument。Insistthathissymbolshallbeinterpreted

ateverystepintoitsfullmeaning，withallthecomplementarythoughts

impliedbythatmeaning，andyoufindalreadytakenforgrantedinthepremissesthatwhichintheconclusionisassertedordenied。Inwhatway，then，mustPhilosophysetout？Thedevelopedintelligence

isframeduponcertainorganizedandconsolidatedconceptionsofwhichit

cannotdivestitself;andwhichitcannomorestirwithoutusingthanthe

bodycanstirwithouthelpofitslimbs。Inwhatway，then，isitpossible

forintelligence，strivingafterPhilosophy，togiveanyaccountofthese

conceptions，andtoshoweithertheirvalidityortheirinvalidity？There

isbutoneway。Thoseofthemwhicharevital，orcannotbeseveredfrom

therestwithoutmentaldissolution，mustbeassumedastrueprovisionally。

Thefundamentalintuitionsthatareessentialtotheprocessofthinking，

mustbetemporarilyacceptedasunquestionable:leavingtheassumptionoftheirunquestionablenesstobejustifiedbytheresults。§40。Howisittobejustifiedbytheresults？Asanyotherassumption

isjustified——byascertainingthatalltheconclusionsdeduciblefromit

correspondwiththefactsasdirectlyobserved——byshowingtheagreement

betweentheexperiences。Thereisnomodeofestablishingthevalidityof

anybeliefexceptthatofshowingitscongruitywithallotherbeliefs。If

wesupposethatamasswhichhasacertaincolourandlustreisthesubstance

calledgold，howdoweproceedtoprovethatitisgold？Werepresentto

ourselvescertainotherimpressionswhichgoldproducesonus，andthenobserve

whether，undertheappropriateconditions，thisparticularmassproduces

onussuchimpressions。Werememberthatgoldhasahighspecificgravity;

andif，onpoisingthissubstanceonthefinger，wefindthatitsweight

isgreatconsideringitsbulk，wetakethecorrespondencebetweentherepresented

impressionandthepresentedimpressionasfurtherevidencethatthesubstance

isgold。Knowingthatgold，unlikemostmetals，isinsolubleinnitricacid，

weimaginetoourselvesadropofnitricacidplacedonthesurfaceofthis

yellow，glittering，heavysubstance，withoutcausingcorrosion;andwhen，

aftersoplacingadropofnitricacid，noeffervescenceorotherchange

follows，weholdthisagreementbetweentheanticipationandtheexperience

tobeanadditionalreasonforthinkingthatthesubstanceisgold。Andif，

similarly，thegreatmalleabilityassessedbygoldwefindtobeparalleled

bythegreatmalleabilityofthissubstance;if，likegold，itfusesatabout

2，000deg。;crystallizesinoctahedrons;isdissolvedbyselenicacid;and，

underallconditions，doeswhatgolddoesundersuchconditions;theconviction

thatitisgoldreacheswhatweregardasthehighestcertainty——weknow

ittobegoldinthefullestsenseofknowing。For，asweheresee，ourwhole

knowledgeofgoldconsistsinnothingmorethantheconsciousnessofadefinite

setofimpressions，standingindefiniterelations，disclosedunderdefinite

conditions;andif，inapresentexperience，theimpressions，relations，

andconditions，perfectlycorrespondwiththoseinpastexperiences，the

cognitionhasallthevalidityofwhichitiscapable。Sothat，generalizing

thestatement，hypotheses，downeventothosesimpleoneswhichwemakefrom

momenttomomentinouractsofrecognition，areverifiedwhenentirecongruity

isfoundbetweenthestatesofconsciousnessconstitutingthem，andcertain

otherstatesofconsciousnessgiveninperception，orreflection，orboth;

andnootherknowledgeispossibleforusthanthatwhichconsistsoftheconsciousnessofsuchcongruitiesandtheircorrelativeincongruities。HencePhilosophy，compelledtomakethosefundamentalassumptionswithout

whichthoughtisimpossible，hastojustifythembyshowingtheircongruity

withallotherdictaofconsciousness。Debarredaswearefromeverything

beyondtherelative，truth，raisedtoitshighestform，canbeforusnothing

morethanperfectagreement，throughoutthewholerangeofourexperience，

betweenthoserepresentationsofthingswhichwedistinguishasidealand

thosepresentationsofthingswhichwedistinguishasreal。If，bydiscovering

apropositiontobeuntrue，wemeannothingmorethandiscoveringadifference

betweenathinginferredandathingperceived;thenabodyofconclusions

inwhichnosuchdifferenceanywhereoccurs，mustbewhatwemeanbyanentirelytruebodyofconclusions。###第11章Andhere，indeed，itbecomesalsoobviousthat，settingoutwiththese

fundamentalintuitionsprovisionallyassumedtobetrue，theprocessofproving

ordisprovingtheircongruitywithallotherdictaofconsciousnessbecomes

thebusinessofPhilosophy;andthecompleteestablishmentofthecongruity

becomesthesamethingasthecompleteunificationofknowledgeinwhichPhilosophyreachesitsgoal。§41。Whatisthisdatum，orrather，whatarethesedata，whichPhilosophy

cannotdowithout？Clearlyoneprimordialdatumisinvolvedintheforegoing

statement。Alreadybyimplicationwehaveassumedthatcongruitiesandincongruities

exist，andarecognizablebyus。Wecannotavoidacceptingastruetheverdict

ofconsciousnessthatsomemanifestationsarelikeonemothermdsomeare

unlikeoneanother。Unlessconsciousnessbeacompetentjudgeofthelikeness

andunlikenessofitsstates，therecanneverbeestablishedthatcongruity

throughoutthewholeofourcognitionswhichconstitutesPhilosophy;nor

canthereeverbeestablishedthatincongruitybywhichonlyanyhypothesis，Philosophicalorother，canbeshownerroneous。Itisuselesstosay，asSirW。Hamiltondoes，that"consciousness

istobepresumedtrustworthyuntilprovedmendacious。"Itcannotbe

provedmendaciousinthis，itsprimordialact;sinceproofinvolvesarepeated

aCceptanceofthisprimordialact。Naymore，theverythingsupposedtobe

provedcannotbeexpressedwithoutrecognizingthisprimordialactasvalid;

sinceunlessweaccepttheverdictofconsciousnessthattheydiffer，mendacity

andtrustworthinessbecomeidentical。Processandproductofreasoningbothdisappearintheabsenceofthisassumption。Itmay，indeed，beoftenshownthatwhat，aftercarelesscomparison，were

supposedtobelikestatesofconsciousness，arereallyunlike;orthatwhat

werecarelesslysupposedtobeunlike，arereallylike。Buthowisthisshown？

Simplybyamorecarefulcomparison，mediatelyorimmediatelymade。Andwhat

doesacceptanceoftherevisedconclusionimply？Simplythatadeliberate

verdictofconsciousnessispreferabletoarashone;or，tospeakmoredefinitely

——thataconsciousnessoflikenessordifferencewhichsurvivescritical

examinationmustbeacceptedinplaceofonethatdoesnotsurvive——theverysurvivalbeingitselftheacceptance。Andherewegettothebottomofthematter。Thepermanenceofaconsciousness

oflikenessordifference，isourultimatewarrantforassertingtheexistence

oflikenessordifference;and，infact，wemeanbytheexistenceoflikeness

ordifference，nothingmorethanthepermanentconsciousnessofit。Tosay

thatagivencongruityorincongruityexists，issimplyourwayofsaying

thatweinvariablyhaveaconsciousnessofitalongwithaconsciousness

ofthecomparedthings。Weknownothingmoreofexistencethancontinuedmanifestation。§42。ButPhilosophyrequiresforitsdatumsomesubstantiveproposition。

Torecognizeasunquestionableacertainfundamentalprocessofthought，

isnotenough:wemustrecognizeasunquestionablesomefundamentalproduct

ofthought，reachedbythisprocess。IfPhilosophyiscompletely——unified

knowledge——iftheunificationofknowledgeistobeeffectedonlybyshowing

thatsomeultimatepropositionincludesandconsolidatesalltheresults

ofexperience;then，clearly，thisultimatepropositionwhichhastobeproved

congruouswithallothers，mustexpressapieceofknowledge，andnotthe

validityofanactofknowing。Havingassumedthetrustworthinessofconsciousness，wehavealsotoassumeastrustworthysomedeliveranceofconsciousness。Whatmustthisbe？Mustitnotbeoneaffirmingthewidestandmostprofound

distinctionwhichthingspresent？Anultimateprinciplethatistounify

allexperience，mustbeco—extensivewithallexperience。ThatwhichPhilosophy

takesasitsdatum，mustbeanassertionofsomelikenessanddifference

towhichallotherlikenessesanddifferencesaresecondary。Ifknowingis

classifying，orgroupingthelikeandseparatingtheunlike;andiftheunification

ofknowledgeproceedsbyarrangingthesmallerclassesoflikeexperiences

withinthelarger，andthesewithinthestilllarger;then，theproposition

bywhichknowledgeisunified，mustbeonespecifyingtheantithesisbetweentwoultimateclassesofexperiences，inwhichallothersmerge。Letusconsiderwhattheseclassesare。Indrawingthedistinctionbetween

them，wecannotavoidusingwordswhichhaveimplicationswiderthantheir

meanings——wecannotavoidarousingthoughtsthatimplytheverydistinction

whichitistheobjectoftheanalysistoestablish。Keepingthisfactin

mind，wecandonomorethanignoretheconnotationsofthewords，andattendonlytothethingstheyavowedlydenote。§43。Settingoutfromtheconclusionlatelyreached，thatallthings

knowntousaremanifestationsoftheUnknowable，andsuppressingeveryhypothesis

respectingthatwhichunderliesoneorotherorderofthesemanifestations;

wefindthatthemanifestations，consideredsimplyassuch，aredivisible

intotwogreatclasses，calledbysomeimpressionsandideas，Theimplications

ofthesewordsareapttovitiatethereasoningsofthosewhousethewords;

anditisbesttoavoidtheriskofmakingunacknowledgedassumptions。The

termsensation，too，commonlyusedastheequivalentofimpression，implies

certainpsychologicaltheories——tacitly，ifnotopenly，postulatesasensitive

organismandsomethingactinguponit:andcanscarcelybeemployedwithout

bringingthesepostulatesintothethoughtsandincludingthemintheinferences。

Similarly，thephrasestateofconsciousness，assignifyingeitheranimpression

oranidea，isobjectionable。Aswecannotthinkofastatewithoutthinking

ofsomethingofwhichitisastate，andwhichiscapableofdifferentstates，

thereisinvolvedaforegoneconclusion——anundevelopedsystemofmetaphysics。

Here，acceptingtheinevitableimplicationthatthemanifestationsimply

somethingmanifested，ouraimmustbetoavoidanyfurtherimplications。

Thoughwecannotexcludefurtherimplicationsfromourthoughts，andcannot

carryonourargumentwithouttacitrecognitionsofthem，wecanatanyrate

refusetorecognizetheminthetermswithwhichwesetout。Wemaydothis

mosteffectuallybyclassingthemanifestationsasvividandfaintrespectively。Letusconsiderwhataretheseveraldistinctionsthatexistbetweenthese。Andfirstafewwordsonthismostconspicuousdistinctionwhichthese

namesimply。Manifestationsthatoccurundertheconditionscalledthose

ofperception（whichconditionswemustseparatefromallhypotheses，and

regardasthemselvesacertaingroupofmanifestations）areordinarilyfar

moredistinctthanthosewhichoccurundertheconditionsknownasthose

ofreflection，ormemory，orimagination，orideation。Thesevividmanifestations

do，indeed，sometimesdifferbutlittlefromthefaintones。Whenitisnearly

darkwemaybeunabletodecidewhetheracertainmanifestationbelongsto

thevividorderorthefaintorder——whetheraswesay，wereallyseesomething

orfancyweseeit。Inlikemanner，betweenaveryfeeblesoundandtheimagination

ofasound，itisoccasionallydifficulttodiscriminate。Buttheseexceptional

casesareextremelyrareincomparisonwiththeenormousmassofcasesin

which，frominstanttoinstant，thevividmanifestationsdistinguishthemselves

unmistakeablyfromthefaint。Conversely，itnowandthenhappens（though

underconditionswhichwedistinguishasabnormal）thatmanifestationsof

thefaintorderbecomesostrongastobemistakenforthoseofthevivid

order。Idealsightsandsoundsareintheinsanesomuchintensifiedasto

beclassedwithrealsightsandsounds——idealandrealbeingheresupposed

toimplynoothercontrastthanthatwhichweareconsidering。Thesecases

ofillusion，aswecallthem，bear，however，sosmallaratiotothegreat

massofcases，thatwemaysafelyneglectthem，andSaythattherelative

faintnessofmanifestationsofthesecondorderissomarked，thatweare

neverindoubtastotheirdistinctnessfromthoseofthefirstorder。Or

ifwerecognizetheexceptionaloccurrenceofdoubt，therecognitionserves

buttointroducethesignificantfactthatwehaveothermeansofdeciding

towhichorderaparticularmanifestationbelongs，whenthetestofcomparativevividnessfailsus。Manifestationsofthevividorderprecede，inourexperience，thoseof

thefaintorder。Toputthefactsinhistoricalsequence——thereisfirst

apresentedmanifestationofthevividorder，andthen，afterwards。maycome

arepresentedmanifestationthatislikeitexceptinbeingmuchlessdistinct。

Afterhavingthosevividmanifestationsknownasparticularplacesandpersons

andthings，wecanhavethosefaintmanifestationswhichwecallrecollections

oftheplaces，persons，andthings，butcannothavethesepreviously。Before

tastingcertainsubstancesandsmellingcertainperfumes，wearewithout

thosefaintmanifestationscalledideasoftheirtastesandsmells;andwhere

certainordersofthevividmanifestationsareshutout（asthevisiblefrom

theblindandtheaudiblefromthedeaf）thecorrespondingfaintmanifestations

nevercomeintoexistence。Itistruethatspecialfaintmanifestationsprecede

thevivid。Whatwecallaconceptionofamachinemaypresentlybefollowed

byavividmanifestationmatchingit——aso—calledactualmachine。Butin

thefirstplacethisoccurrenceofthevividmanifestationafterthefaint

isnoteitherspontaneousoreasylikethatofthefaintafterthevivid。

Andinthesecondplace，thoughafaintmanifestationofthiskindmayoccur

beforethevividoneansweringtoit，yetitscomponentpartsmaynot。Without

theforegoingvividmanifestationsofwheelsandbarsandcranks，theinventor

couldhavenofaintmanifestationofhisnewmachine。Thusitcannotbedenied

thatthetwoordersofmanifestationsaredistinguishedfromoneanotherasindependentanddependent。Notenextthattheyformconcurrentseries;orratherletuscallthem，

notseries，whichimplieslineararrangements，butheterogeneousstreams

orprocessions。Theserunsidebyside;eachnowbroadeningandnownarrowing，

eachnowthreateningtoobliterateitsneighbourandnowinturnthreatened

withobliteration，butneithereverquiteexcludingtheotherfromtheir

commonchannel。Letuswatchthemutualactionsofthetwocurrents。During

whatwecallstatesofactivity，thevividmanifestationspredominate。We

simultaneouslyreceivemanyandvariedpresentations——acrowdofsights，

sounds，resistances，tastes，odours，etc。;somegroupsofthemchangingand

otherstemporarilyfixed，butalteringaswemove;andwhenwecomparein

itsbreadthandmassivenessthisstreamofvividmanifestationswiththe

streamoffaintones，theselastsinkintorelativeinsignificance。They

neverwhollydisappear，however。Alwaysalongwiththevividmanifestations，

evenintheirgreatestobtrusiveness，theregoesathreadcalledthoughts

constitutedofthefaintmanifestations。Orifitbecontendedthattheoccurrence

ofadeafeningexplosionoranintensepainmayforamomentexcludeevery

idea，itmustyetbeadmittedthatsuchbreachofcontinuitycanneverbe

immediatelyknownasoccurring;sincetheactofknowingisimpossiblein

theabsenceofideas。Ontheotherhand，aftercertainvividmanifestations

whichwecalltheactsofclosingtheeyesandadjustingourselvessoas

toenfeeblethevividmanifestationscalledpressures，sounds，etc。，the

faintmanifestationsbecomerelativelypredominant。Thecurrentofthem，

nolongerobscuredbythevividcurrent，growsdistinct，andseemsalmost

toexcludethevividcurrent。Butthevividmanifestations，howeversmall

thecurrentofthembecomes，stillcontinue:pressureandtouchdonotwholly

disappear。Itisonlyduringthestatetermedsleep，thatmanifestations

ofthevividorderceasetobedistinguishableassuch，andthoseofthe

faintordercometobemistakenforthem。Andevenofthisweremainunaware

tillmanifestationsofthevividorderrecuronawaking。Wecanneverinter

thatmanifestationsofthevividorderhavebeenabsent，untiltheyareagain

present;andcanthereforeneverdirectlyknowthemtobeabsent。Thus，of

thetwostreamsofmanifestations，eachpreservesitscontinuity。Asthey

flowsidebyside，eithertrenchesontheother;butatnomomentcanitbesaidthattheonehas，thenandthere，brokenthroughtheother。Besidesthislongitudinalcohesionthereisalateralcohesion，bothof

thevividtothevividandofthefainttothefaint。Thecomponentsofthe

vividseriesareboundtogetherbytiesofco—existenceaswellasbyties

ofsuccession;andthecomponentsofthefaintseriesaresimilarlybound

together。Betweenthedegreesofunioninthetwocasesthereare，however，

markedandverysignificantdifferences。Letusobservethem。Overalimited

areaofconsciousness，aswenamethisdoublestream，lightsandshadesand

coloursandoutlinesconstituteagrouptowhichwegiveacertainnamedistinguishing

itasanobject;andwhiletheycontinuepresent，theseunitedvividmanifestations

remaininseparable。So，too，isitwithco—existinggroupsofmanifestations:

eachpersistsasaspecialcombination;andmostofthempreserveunchanging

relationswiththosearound。Suchofthemasdonot——suchofthemasare

capableofwhatwecallindependentmovements，neverthelessshowusaconstant

connexionbetweencertainofthemanifestationstheyinclude，alongwith

avariableconnexionofothers。Andthoughaftercertainvividmanifestations

knownasachangeintheconditionsofperception，thereisachangeinthe

proportionsamongthevividmanifestationsconstitutinganygroup，their

cohesioncontinues。Turningtothefaintmanifestations，weseethattheir

lateralcohesionsaremuchlessextensive，andinmostcasesbynomeans

sorigorous。AfterthegroupoffeelingsIcallclosingmyeyes，Icanrepresent

anobjectnowstandinginacertainplace，asstandinginsomeotherplace，

orasabsent。WhileIlookatabluevase，Icannotseparatethevividmanifestation

ofbluenessfromthevividmanifestationofaparticularshape;but，inthe

absenceofthesevividmanifestations，Icanseparatethefaintmanifestation

oftheshapefromthefaintmanifestationofblueness，andreplacethelast

byafaintmanifestationofredness，andIcanalsochangetheshapeand

thesizeofthevasetoanyextent。Itissothroughout:thefaintmanifestations

clingtogethertoacertainextent，butmostofthemmaybere—arrangedwith

facility。Indeednoneoftheindividualfaintmanifestationscohereinthe

sameindissolublewayasdotheindividualvividmanifestations。Thoughalong

withafaintmanifestationofpressurethereisalwayssomefaintmanifestation

ofextension，yetnoparticularfaintmanifestationofextensionisbound

upwithaparticularfaintmanifestationofpressure。Sothatwhereasin

thevividordertheindividualmanifestationscohereindissolublyusually

inlargegroups，inthefaintordertheindividualmanifestationsnoneof

themcohereindissolubly，andaremostofthemlooselyaggregated:theonly

indissolublecohesionsamongthembeingbetweencertainoftheirgenericforms。Whilethecomponentsofeachcurrentcoherestronglywiththeirneighbours

ofthesamecurrent，mostofthemdonotcoherestronglywiththoseofthe

othercurrent。Or，morecorrectly，wemaysaythatthevividcurrentunceasingly

flowsonquiteundisturbedbythefaintcurrent;andthatthefaintcurrent，

thoughoftenlargelydeterminedbythevivid，andalwaystosomeextentcarried

withit，mayyetmaintainasubstantialindependence，lettingthevividcurrent

slideby。Wewillglanceattheinteractionsofthetwo。Saveinpeculiar

caseshereaftertobedealtwith，thefaintmanifestationsfailtomodify

intheslightestdegreethevividmanifestations。Thosevividmanifestations，

whichIknowascomponentsofalandscape，assurgingsofthesea，aswhistlings

ofthewind，asmovementsofvehiclesandpeople，areabsolutelyuninfluenced

bytheaccompanyingfaintmanifestationswhichIknowasmyideas。Onthe

otherhand，thecurrentoffaintmanifestationsisalwaysperturbedbythe

vivid。Frequentlyitconsistsmainlyoffaintmanifestationswhichcling

tothevividones，andarecarriedwiththemastheypass，memoriesandsuggestions

aswecallthem。Atothertimeswhen，aswesay，absorbedinthought，the

disturbanceofthefaintcurrentisbutsuperficial。Thevividmanifestations

dragafterthemsuchfewfaintmanifestationsonlyasconstituterecognitions

ofthem:toeachimpressionadherecertainideaswhichmakeuptheinterpretation

ofitassuchorsuch，andsometimesnoteventhiscohesionhappens。But

theremeanwhileflowsonamainstreamoffaintmanifestationswhollyunrelated

tothevividmanifestations——whatwecallareverie，perhaps，oritmay

beaprocessofreasoning。Andoccasionally，duringthestateknownasabsence

ofmind，thiscurrentoffaintmanifestationssofarpredominatesthatthe

vividcurrentscarcelyaffectsitatall。Hence，theseconcurrentseries

ofmanifestations，eachcoherentwithitselflongitudinallyandtransversely

havebutapartialcoherencewithoneanother。Thevividseriesisquite

unmovedbyitspassingneighbour;andthoughthefaintseriesisalwaysto

someextentmovedbytheadjacentvividseries，andisoftencarriedbodily

alongwiththevividseries，itmayneverthelessbecomeingreatmeasureseparate。Yetanotherall—importantdifferencehastobenamed。Theconditionsunder

whichthesetwoordersofmanifestationsoccur，areunlike;andtheconditions

ofoccurrenceofeachorderbelongtoitself。Whenevertheimmediateantecedents

ofvividmanifestationsaretraceable，theyprovetobeothervividmanifestations;

andthoughwecannotsaythattheantecedentsofthefaintmanifestations

alwaysliewhollyamongthemselves，yettheessentialonesdo。Thesestatements

needagooddealofexplanation。Changesamongthemotionsandsoundsand

aspectsofwhatwecallobjects，areeitherchangesthatfollowcertainother

motions，sounds，andaspects，orchangesofwhichtheantecedentsareunapparent。

Someofthevividmanifestations，however，occuronlyunderconditionsthat

seemofanotherorder。Thoseknownascoloursandvisibleformspresuppose

openeyes。Butwhatisopeningoftheeyes，translatedintothetermswe

arehereusing？Literallyitisanoccurrenceofcertainvividmanifestations。

Thepreliminaryideaofopeningtheeyesdoes，indeed，consistoffaintmanifestations，

buttheactofopeningthemconsistsofvividmanifestations。Andthelike

isstillmoreobviouslythecasewiththosemovementsoftheeyesandthe

headwhicharefollowedbynewgroupsofvividmanifestations。Similarly

withtheantecedentstothevividmanifestationswhichwedistinguishas

touchandpressure。Allthechangeableoneshavefortheirconditionsof

occurrencecertainvividmanifestationscalledsensationsofmusculartension。

Itistruethattheconditionstotheseconditionsaremanifestationsof

thefaintorder——thoseideasofmuscularactionswhichprecedemuscular

actions。Andherearisesacomplication，forwhatiscalledthebody，is

presenttousasasetofvividmanifestationsconnectedwiththefaintmanifestations

inaspecialway—awaysuchthatinitalonecertainvividmanifestations

arecapableofbeingproducedbyfaintmanifestations。Theremustbenamed，

too，thekindredexceptionfurnishedbytheemotions——anexceptionwhich，

however，servestoenforcethegeneralproposition。Forwhileitistrue

thattheemotionsmustbeclassedasvividmanifestations，whichadmitof

beingproducedbythefaintmanifestationswecallideas;itisalsotrue

thatbecausetheconditionstotheiroccurrencethusexistamongthefaint

manifestations，weregardthemasbelongingtothesamegeneralaggregate

asthefaintmanifestations——donotclassthemwithsuchothervividmanifestations

ascolours，soundspressures，smells，etc。Butomittingthesepeculiarvivid

manifestationswhichweknowasmusculartensionsandemotions，wemaysay

oftherest，thattheirantecedentsaremanifestationsbelongingtotheir

ownclass。Intheparallelcurrentwefindaparalleltruth。Thoughmany

manifestationsofthefaintorderarepartlycausedbymanifestationsof

thevividorder，whichcallupmemories，aswesay，andsuggestinferences，

yettheseresultsmainlydependoncertainantecedentsbelongingtothefaint

order。AclouddriftsacrosstheSun，andmayormaynotchangethecurrent

ofideas:theinferencethatitwillrainmayarise，ortheprevioustrain

ofthoughtmaycontinue——adifferencedeterminedbyconditionsamongthe

thoughts。Again，suchpowerasavividmanifestationhasofcausingcertain

faintmanifestationsdependsonthepre—existenceofappropriatefaintmanifestations。

IfIhaveneverheardacurlew，thecrywhichanunseenonemakes，fails

toproduceanideaofthebird。Andonrememberingwhatvarioustrainsof

thoughtarearousedbythesamesight，weseethattheoccurrenceofeach

faintmanifestationchieflydependsonitsrelationstootherfaintmanifestationsthathavegonebeforeorco—exist。Hereweareintroduced，lastly，tooneofthemostimportantofthedifferences

betweenthosetwoordersofmanifestations。Theconditionsofoccurrence

arenotdistinguishedsolelybythefactthateachset，whenidentifiable，

belongstoitsownorderofmanifestations。Theyarefurtherdistinguished

inaverysignificantway。Manifestationsofthefaintorderhavetraceable

antecedents;canbemadetooccurbyestablishingtheirconditionsofoccurrence;

andcanbesuppressedbyestablishingotherconditions。Butmanifestations

ofthevividordercontinuallyoccurwithoutpreviouspresentationoftheir

antecedents;andinmanycasestheypersistorceaseinsuchwaysastoshow

thattheirantecedentsarebeyondcontrol。Thesensationknownasaflash

oflightning，breaksacrossthecurrentofourthoughtsabsolutelywithout

notice。Thesoundsfromabandthatstrikesupinthestreetorfromacrash

ofchinainthenextroom，arenotconnectedwithanypreviously—present

manifestations，eitherofthefaintorderorofthevividorder。Oftenthese

vividmanifestations，arisingunexpectedly，persistinthrustingthemselves

acrossthecurrentofthefaintones;whichnotonlycannotdirectlyaffect

them，butcannotevenindirectlyaffectthem。Awoundproducedbyablow

frombehind，isavividmanifestationtheconditionsofoccurrenceofwhich

wereneitheramongthefaintnoramongthevivid;andtheconditionstothe

persistenceofwhichareboundupwiththevividmanifestationsinsomeunmanifested

way。Sothatwhereasinthefaintorder，theconditionsofoccurrenceare

alwaysamongthepre—existingorco—existingmanifestations;inthevivid

order，theconditionsofoccurrenceareoftenneitherpresentnorcanbemadepresent。###第12章Letmebrieflyenumeratethesedistinctivecharacters。Manifestations

oftheoneorderarevividandthoseoftheotherarefaint。Thoseofthe

oneorderareoriginals，whilethoseoftheotherarecopies。Thefirstform

withoneanotheraheterogeneouscurrentthatisneverbroken;andthesecond

alsoformwithoneanotheraheterogeneouscurrentthatisneverbroken:

or，tospeakstrictly，nobreakageofeitheriseverdirectlyknown。Those

ofthefirstordercoherewithoneanother，notonlylongitudinallybutalso

transversely;asalsodothoseofthesecondorderwithoneanother。Between

manifestationsofthefirstorderthecohesions，bothlongitudinalandtransverse，

areindissolublebyanydirectactionofthesecondorder;butbetweenmanifestations

ofthesecondorder，thesecohesionsaremostofthemdissolublewithease。

Whilethemembersofeachcurrentaresocoherentwithoneanotherthatit

cannotbebroken，thetwocurrents，runningsidebyside，havebutlittle

coherence。Theconditionsunderwhichmanifestationsofeitherorderoccur，

themselvesbelongtothatorder;butwhereasinthefaintordertheconditions

arealwayspresent，inthevividordertheyareoftennotpresent，butlie

somewhereoutsideoftheseries。Sevenseparatecharacters，then，markoffthesetwoordersofmanifestationsfromoneanother。§44。Whatisthemeaningofthis？Theforegoinganalysiswascommenced

inthebeliefthatthepropositionpostulatedbyPhilosophy，mustaffirm

someultimateclassesoflikenessesandunlikenesses，inwhichallother

classesmerge;andherewehavefoundthatallmanifestationsoftheUnknowablearedivisibleintotwosuchclasses。Whatisthedivisionequivalentto？ObviouslyitcorrespondstothedivisionbetweenobjectandSubject。This

profoundestdistinctionamongmanifestationsoftheUnknowable，werecognize

bygroupingthemintoselfandnot—self。Thesefaintmanifestations，forming

acontinuouswholedifferingfromtheotherinthequantity，quality，cohesion，

andconditionsofexistenceofitsparts，wecalltheego;andthesevivid

manifestations，boundtogetherinrelatively—immensemasses，andhavingindependent

conditionsofexistence，wecallthenon—ego。Orrather，moretruly——each

orderofmanifestationscarrieswithittheirresistibleimplicationofsome

powerthatmanifestsitself;andbythewordsegoandnon—egorespectively，

wemeanthepowerthatmanifestsitselfinthefaintforms，andthepowerthatmanifestsitselfinthevividforms。Thissegregationofthemanifestationsandcoalescenceofthemintotwo

distinctwholes，isingreatpartspontaneous，andprecedesalldeliberate

judgments;thoughitisendorsedbysuchjudgmentswhentheycometobemade。

Forthemanifestationsofeachorderhavenotsimplythatkindofunionimplied

bygroupingthemasbelongingtothesameclass，buttheyhavethatmuch

moreintimateunionimpliedbycohesion，Theircohesiveunionexhibitsitself

beforeanyactsofclassingtakeplace。Sothat，intruth，thesetwoorders

ofmanifestationsaresubstantiallyself—separatedandself—consolidated。

Themembersofeach，byclingingtooneanotherandpartingfromtheiropposites，

themselvesformtheunitedwholesknownasobjectandsubject。Itisthis

self—unionoftheirmemberswhichgivestothesewholesformedofthem，their

individualitiesaswholes，andthatseparatenessfromeachotherwhichtranscends

judgment;andjudgmentmerelyaidsbyassigningtotheirrespectiveclasses，

suchmanifestationsashavenotdistinctlyunitedthemselveswiththerestoftheirkind。Onefurtherperpetually—repeatedactofjudgmentthereis，indeed，which

strengthensthisfundamentalantithesis，andgivesavastextensiontoone

termofit。Wecontinuallylearnthatwhiletheconditionsofoccurrence

offaintmanifestationsarealwaystobefound，theconditionsofoccurrence

ofvividmanifestationsareoftennottobefound。Wealsocontinuallylearn

thatvividmanifestationswhichhavenoperceivableantecedentsamongthe

vividmanifestations，arelikecertainprecedingoneswhichhadperceivable

antecedentsamongthevividmanifestations。Junctionofthesetwoexperiences

producestheirresistiblebeliefthatsomevividmanifestationshaveconditions

ofoccurrenceexistingoutofthecurrentofvividmanifestations——existing

aspotentialvividmanifestationscapableofbecomingactual。Andsoweare

madeconsciousofanindefinitely—extendedregionofpowerorbeing，not

merelyseparatefromthecurrentoffaintmanifestationsconstitutingthe

phenomenalego，butlyingbeyondthecurrentofvividmanifestationsconstitutingtheimmediately—presentportionofthephenomenalnon—ego。§45。Inaveryimperfectway，passingoverobjectionsandomitting

needfulexplanations，Ihavethusindicatedthenatureandjustification

ofthatfundamentalbeliefwhichPhilosophyrequiresasadatum。Imight，

indeed，safelyhaveassumedthisultimatetruth;whichCommonSenseasserts，

whicheverystepinSciencetakesforgranted，andwhichnometaphysician

everforamomentsucceededinexpellingfromconsciousness。Butasallthat

followsproceedsuponthispostulate，itseemeddesirablebrieflytoshow

itswarrant，withtheviewofshuttingoutcriticismswhichmightelsebe

made。Itseemeddesirabletoprovethatthisdeepestcognitionisneither，

astheidealistasserts，anillusion，norasthescepticthinks，ofdoubtful

worth，norasisheldbythenaturalrealist，aninexplicableintuition;

butthatitisalegitimatedeliveranceofconsciousnesselaboratingits

materialsafterthelawsofitsnormalaction。While，inorderoftime，the

establishmentofthisdistinctionprecedesallreasoning;andwhile，running

throughourmentalstructureasitdoes，wearedebarredfromreasoningabout

itwithouttakingforgranteditsexistence;analysisneverthelessenables

ustojustifytheassertionofitsexistence，byshowingthatitisalso

theoutcomeofaprimaryclassificationbasedonaccumulatedlikenessesand

accumulateddifferences。Inotherwords——Reasoning，whichisitselfbut

aformationofcohesionsamongmanifestations，herestrengthens，bythecohesionsitforms，thecohesionswhichitfindsalreadyexisting。Beforeproceedingafurtherpreliminaryisneeded。Themanifestations

oftheUnknowable，separatedintothetwodivisionsofselfandnot—self，

arere—divisibleintocertainmostgeneralforms，therealityofwhichScience，

aswellasCommonSense，frommomenttomomentassumes。Inthechapteron

"UltimateScientificIdeas，"itwasshownthatweknownothing

oftheseforms，consideredtthemselves。As，nevertheless，wemustcontinue

tousethewordssignifyingthem，itisneedfultosaywhatinterpretations

aretobeputonthesewords。

Chapter3Space，Time，Matter，Motion，andForce§46。ThatscepticalstateofmindwhichthecriticismofPhilosophy

usuallyproduce，is，ingreatmeasure，causedbythemisinterpretationof

words。Thesehavebyassociationacquiredmeaningsquitedifferentfromthose

giventotheminphilosophicaldiscussion;andtheordinarymeaningsbeing

unavoidablysuggested，thereresultsmoreorlessofthatdream—likeillusion

whichissoincongruouswithourinstinctiveconvictions。Thewordphenomenon

anditsequivalentwordappearance，areingreatparttoblameforthis。

Inordinaryspeechthesealwaysimplyvisualperceptions。Habitalmost，if

notquite，disablesusfromthinkingofappearanceexceptassomethingseen;

andthoughphenomenonhasamoregeneralizedmeaning，yetwecannotridit

ofassociationswithappearance。When，therefore，Philosophyprovesthat

ourknowledgeoftheexternalworldcanbebutphenomenal——whenitconcludes

thatthethingsofwhichweareconsciousareappearances;itinevitably

suggestsanillusivenesslikethattowhichourvisualperceptionsareso

liable。Goodpicturesshowusthattheaspectsofthingsmaybeverynearly

simulatedbycoloursoncanvas。Thelooking—glassdistinctlyproveshowdeceptive

issightwhenunverifiedbytouch;asdoesalsotheapparentbendinastraight

stickinclinedinthewater。Andthecasesinwhichwethinkweseesomething

whichwedonotsee，furthershakeourfaithinvision。Sothattheimplication

ofuncertaintyhasinfectedtheverywordappearance。Hence，Philosophy，

bygivingitanextendedmeaning，leadsustothinkofalloursensesas

deceivingusinthesamewaythatoureyesdo;andsomakesusfeelourselves

inaworldofphantasms。Hadphenomenonandappearancenosuchmisleading

associations，little，ifany，ofthismentalconfusionwouldresult。Orif，

whendiscussingthenatureofourknowledge，wealwaysthoughtoftactual

impressionsinsteadofvisualimpressions——ifinsteadoftheperceptions

ofobjectsyieldedbyoureyeswealwaysinsisteduponthinkingoftheperceptions

yieldedbyourhands，theideaofunrealitywouldinlargemeasuredisappear。

Metaphysicalcriticismwouldthenhavemerelytheeffectofprovingtous

thatfeelingsoftouchandpressureproducedbyanobjectgiveusnoknowledge

ofitsnature，atthesametimethatthecriticismwouldbyimplicationadmit

thattherewasasomethingwhichproducedthesefeelings。Itwouldprove

tousthatourknowledgeconsistssimplyoftheeffectswroughtonourconsciousness，

andthatthecausesofthoseeffectsremainunknown;butitwouldnotin

doingthistendinanydegreetodisprovetheexistenceofsuchcauses:all

itsargumentstacitlytakingthemforgranted。Andwhenthetwowerealways

thoughtofinthisimmediaterelation，therewouldbelittledangeroffallingintotheinsanitiesofidealism。Suchdangerasmightremain，woulddisappearonmakingafurtherverbal

correction。Weincreasetheseemingunrealityofthatphenomenalexistence

whichwecanaloneknow;bycontrastingitwithanoumenalexistencewhich

weimaginewould，ifwecouldknowit，bemoretrulyrealtous。Butwedelude

ourselveswithaverbalfiction。Whatisthemeaningofthewordreal？In

theinterpretationgiventoit，thediscussionsofphilosophyretainone

elementofthevulgarconceptionofthingswhiletheyrejecttherest，and

createconfusionbytheinconsistency。Thepeasant，oncontemplatinganobject，

doesnotregardthatwhichheisconsciousofassomethinginhimself，but

believesittobetheexternalobjectitself:tohimtheappearanceandthe

realityareoneandthesamething。Themetaphysician，however，whilehis

wordsimplybeliefinarealityseesthatconsciousnesscannotembraceit，

butonlytheappearanceofit;andsohetransferstheappearanceintoconsciousness

andleavestherealityoutside。Thisrealityleftoutside，hecontinuesto

thinkofmuchinthesamewaythatthepeasantthinksoftheappearance。

Therealnessascribedtoitisconstantlyspokenofasthoughitwereknown

apartfromallactsofconsciousness。Itseemstobeforgottenthattheidea

ofrealitycanbenothingmorethansomemodeofconsciousness;andthat

thequestiontobeconsideredis——Whatistherelationbetweenthismodeandothermodes？Byrealitywemeanpersistenceinconsciousness:apersistencewhichis

eitherunconditional，asourconsciousnessofspace，orwhichisconditional，

asourconsciousnessofabodywhilegraspingit。Thereal，asweconceive

it，isdistinguishedsolelybythetestofpersistence;forbythistest

weseparateitfromwhatwecalltheunreal。Betweenapersonstandingbefore

usandtheideaofsuchaperson，wediscriminatebyourabilitytoexpel

theideafromconsciousnessandourinability，whilelookingathim，toexpel

thepersonfromconsciousness。Andwhenindoubtastothetrustworthiness

ofsomeimpressionmadeonoureyesinthedusk，wesettlethematterby

observingwhethertheimpressionpersistsoncloserinspection;andwepredicate

realityifthepersistenceiscomplete。Howtrulypersistenceiswhatwe

meanbyreality，isshowninthefactthatwhen，aftercriticismhasproved

thattherealaspresentedinperceptionisnottheobjectivelyreal，the

vagueconsciousnesswhichweretainoftheobjectivelyreal，isofsomething

whichpersistsabsolutely，underallchangesofmode，form，orappearance。

Andthefactthatwecannotformevenanindefinitenotionoftheabsolutely

real，exceptastheabsolutelypersistent，impliesthatpersistenceisour

ultimatetestoftherealwhetherasexistingunderitsunknownformorundertheformknowntous。Consequently，theresultmustbethesametouswhetherthatwhichwe

perceivebetheUnknowableitself，oraneffectinvariablywroughtonus

bytheUnknowable。If，undercertainconditionsfurnishedbyourconstitutions，

somePowerofwhichthenatureisbeyondconception，alwaysproducesacertain

modeofconsciousness——ifthismodeofconsciousnessisaspersistentas

wouldbethisPowerwereitinconsciousness;therealitywillbetoconsciousness

ascompleteintheonecaseasintheother。WereUnconditionedBeingitself

presentinthought，itcouldbutbepersistent;andif，instead，thereis

Beingconditionedbytheformsofthought，butnolesspersistent，itmustbetousnolessreal。Hencetheremaybedrawntheseconclusions:——First，thatwehavean

indefiniteconsciousnessofanabsoluterealitytranscendingrelations，which

isproducedbytheabsolutepersistenceinusofsomethingwhichsurvives

allchangesofrelation。Second，thatwehaveadefiniteconsciousnessof

relativereality，whichunceasinglypersistsinusunderoneorotherof

itsforms，andundereachformsolongastheconditionsofpresentation

arefulfilled;andthattherelativereality，beingthuscontinuouslypersistent

inus，isasrealtousaswouldbetheabsoluterealitycoulditbeimmediately

known。Third，thatthoughtbeingpossibleonlyunderrelation，therelative

realitycanbeconceivedassuchonlyinconnexionwithanabsolutereality;

andtheconnexionbetweenthetwobeingabsolutelypersistentinourconsciousness，isrealinthesamesenseasthetermsitunitesarereal。Thusthenwemayresume，withentireconfidence，thoserealisticconceptions

whichPhilosophyatfirstsightseemstodissipate。Thoughrealityunder

theformsofourconsciousnessisbutaconditionedeffectoftheabsolute

reality，yetthisconditionedeffectstandinginindissolublerelationwith

itsunconditionedcause，andbeingequallypersistentwithitsolongas

theconditionspersist，is，totheconsciousnesssupplyingthoseconditions，

equallyreal。Muchasourvisualperceptions，thoughmerelysymbolsfound

tobetheequivalentsoftactualperceptions，areyetsoidentifiedwith

thosetactualperceptionsthatweappearactuallytoseethesolidityand

hardnesswhichwedobutinfer，andthusconceiveassolidobjectswhatare

onlythesignsofsolidobjects;so，onahigherstage，dowedealwiththese

relativerealitiesasthoughtheyweretheactualexistencesinsteadofeffects

oftheactualexistences。Andwemaylegitimatelycontinuesotodealwith

themaslongastheconclusionstowhichtheyhelpusareunderstoodasrelativeandnotabsolute。Thisgeneralconclusionitnowremainstointerpretspecificallyinitsapplicationtoeachofourultimatescientificideas。§47（*）

inthissectionandthethreesectionsfollowingit，thejustificationwill

befoundinthewriter\'sPrinciplesofPsychology。>Wethinkin

relations。Wehaveseen（Chap。iii。PartI）thatultimatemodesofbeing

cannotbeknownorconceivedastheyexistinthemselves;thatis，outof

relationtoourconsciousness。Wehaveseen，byanalyzingtheproductof

thought，thatitalwaysconsistsofrelations，andcannotincludeanything

deeperthanthemostgeneralofthese。Onanalyzingtheprocessofthought，

wefoundthatcognitionoftheAbsoluteisimpossible，becauseitpresents

neitherrelationnoritselements——differenceandlikeness。Andlastly，

itwasshownthatthoughbytherelativityofourthoughtweareeternally

debarredfromknowingorconceivingAbsoluteBeing;yetthatthisveryrelativity

ofourthought，necessitatesthatvagueconsciousnessofAbsoluteBeingwhich

nomentaleffortcansuppress。Thatrelationistheuniversalformofthought，

isthusatruthwhichallkindsofdemonstrationuniteinproving。Bythe

transcendentalists，certainotherelementsofconsciousnessareregarded

asformsofthought，ormorestrictlyofintuition，whichistheultimate

componentofthought。Whilerelationwouldofnecessitybeadmittedbythem

tobeauniversalmentalform，theywouldclasswithittwoothersasalso

universal。Weretheirdoctrineotherwisetenable，however，itmuststill

berejectedifsuchallegedfurtherformsareinterpretableasgenerated

bytheprimaryform。Ifwethinkinrelations，andifrelationshavecertain

universalforms，itismanifestthatsuchuniversalformsofrelationswill

becomeuniversalformsofconsciousness。Andifthesefurtheruniversalforms

arethusexplicable，itissuperfluous，andthereforeunphilosophical，to

assignthemanindependentorigin。Nowrelationsareoftwoorders——relations

ofsequence，andrelationsofcoexistence;ofwhichtheoneisoriginaland

theotherderived。Therelationofsequenceisgivenineverychangeofconsciousness。

Therelationofco—existence，whichcannotbeoriginallygiveninaconsciousness

ofwhichthestatesareserial，becomesdistinguishedonlywhenitisfound

thatcertainrelationsofsequencehavetheirtermspresentedinconsciousness

ineitherorderwithequalfacility;whiletheothersarepresentedonly

inoneorder。Relationsofwhichthetermsarenotreversible，becomerecognized

assequencesproper;whilerelationsofwhichthetermsoccurindifferently

inbothdirections，becomerecognizedasco—existences。Endlessexperiences，

whichfrommomenttomomentpresentbothordersoftheserelations，render

thedistinctionbetweenthemperfectlydefinite;andatthesametimegenerate

anabstractconceptionofeach。TheabstractofallsequencesisTime。The

abstractofallco—existencesisSpace。Fromthefactthatinthought，Time

isinseparablefromsequence，andSpacefromco—existence，wedonothere

inferthatTimeandSpaceareoriginalformsofconsciousnessunderwhich

sequencesandco—existencesareknown;butweinferthatourconceptions

ofTimeandSpacearegenerated，asotherabstractsaregeneratedfromother

concretes:theonlydifferencebeingthattheorganizationofexperienceshas，inthesecases，beengoingonthroughouttheentireevolutionofintelligence。Thissynthesisisconfirmedbyanalysis。OurconsciousnessofSpaceis

aconsciousnessofco—existentPositions。Aportionofspacecanbeconceived

onlybyrepresentingitslimitsasco—existingincertainrelativePositions;

andeachofitsimaginedboundaries，beitlineorplane，canbethought

ofinnootherwaythanasmadeupofco—existentpositionsincloseproximity

Andsinceapositionisnotanentity——sincethecongeriesofpositions

whichconstituteanyconceivedportionofspace，andmarkitsbounds，are

notsensibleexistences;itfollowsthattheco—existentpositionswhich

makeupourconsciousnessofSpacearenotco—existencesinthefullsense

oftheword（whichimpliesrealitiesastheirterms），butaretheblankforms

ofco—existences，leftbehindwhentherealitiesareabsent;thatis，are

theabstractsofco—existences。Theexperiencesoutofwhich，duringthe

evolutionofintelligence，thisabstractofallco—existenceshasbeengenerated，

areexperiencesofindividualpositionsascertainedbytouch;andeachof

suchexperiencesinvolvestheresistanceofanobjecttouched，andthemuscular

tensionswhichmeasurethisresistance。Bycountlessunlikemuscularadjustments，

involvingunlikemusculartensions，differentresistingpositionsaredisclosed;

andthese，astheycanbeexperiencedinoneorderasreadilyasanother，

weregardasco—existing。Butsince，underothercircumstances，thesame

muscularadjustmentsdonotproducecontactswithresistingpositions，there

resultthesamestatesofconsciousnessminustheresistances——blankforms

ofco—existencefromwhichtheco—existentobjectsbeforeexperiencedare

absent。Andfromabuildingupofthese，tooelaboratetobeheredetailed，

resultsthatabstractofallrelationsofco—existencewhichwecallSpace。

Itremainsonlytopointout，asatruthhereaftertoberecalled，thatthe

experiencesfromwhichtheconsciousnessofSpacearises，areexperiences

offorce，Aplexusofmuscularforcesweourselvesexercise，constitutes

theindexofeachpositionasoriginallydisclosedtous;andtheresistance

whichmakesusawareofsomethingexistinginthatposition，isanequivalent

ofthepressureweconsciouslyexert。Thus，experiencesofforcesvariouslycorrelated，arethosefromwhichourconsciousnessofSpaceisabstracted。OurSpace—consciousnessbeingthusshowntobepurelyrelative，whatare

wetosayofthatwhichcausesit？IsthereanabsoluteSpacewhichrelative

Spaceinsomesortrepresents？IsSpaceinitselfaformorconditionof

absoluteexistence，producinginourmindsacorrespondingformorcondition

ofrelativeexistence？Theseareunanswerablequestions。Ourconceptionof

SpaceisproducedbysomemodeoftheUnknowable;andthecompleteunchangeableness

ofourconceptionofitsimplyimpliesacompleteuniformityintheeffects

wroughtbythismodeoftheUnknowableuponus。Butthereforetocallit

anecessarymodeoftheUnknowableisillegitimate。Allwecanassertis

thatSpaceisarelativereality;thatourconsciousnessofthisunchanging

relativerealityimpliesanabsoluterealityequallyunchanginginsofar

asweareconcerned;andthattherelativerealitymaybeunhesitatingly

acceptedinthoughtasavalidbasisforourreasonings;which，whenrightly

carriedon，willbringustotruthsthathavealikerelativereality——theonlytruthswhichconcernusorcanpossiblybeknowntous。ConcerningTime，relativeandabsolute，aparallelargumentleadstoparallelconclusions。Thesearetooobvioustoneedspecifyingindetail。§48。OurconceptionofMatter，reducedtoitssimplestshape，is

thatofco—existentpositionsthatofferresistance;ascontrastedwithour

conceptionofSpace，inwhichtheco—existentpositionsoffernoresistance。

WethinkofBodyasboundedbysurfacesthatresist，andasmadeupthroughout

ofpartsthatresist。Mentallyabstracttheco—existentresistances，and

theconsciousnessofBodydisappears，leavingbehindittheconsciousness

ofSpace。Andsincethegroupofco—existingresistantpositionsgivesus

impressionsofresistancewhetherwetouchitsnear，itsremote，itsright，

oritsleftside;itresultsthatasdifferentmuscularadjustmentsindicate

differentco—existences，weareobligedtoconceiveeveryportionofmatter

ascontainingmorethanoneresistantposition——thatis，asoccupyingSpace。

Hencethenecessityweareunderofrepresentingtoourselvestheultimate

elementsofMatterasbeingatonceextendedandresistant:thisbeingthe

universalformofoursensibleexperiencesofMatter，becomestheformwhich

ourconceptionofitcannottranscend，howeverminutethefragmentswhich

imaginarysubdivisionsproduce。Ofthesetwoinseparableelements，theresistance

isPrimaryandtheextensionsecondary。Occupiedextension，orBody，being

distinguishedinconsciousnessfromunoccupiedextension，orSpace，byits

resistance，thisattributemustclearlyhaveprecedenceinthegenesisof

theidea。If，aswasarguedinthelastsection，theexperiences，mainly

ancestral，fromwhichourconsciousnessofSpaceisabstracted，canbereceived

onlythroughimpressionsofresistancemadeontheorganism;theimplication

is，thatexperiencesofresistancebeingthosefromwhichtheconception

ofSpaceisgenerated，theresistance—attributeofMattermustberegarded

asprimordialandthespace—attributeasderivative。Whenceitbecomesclear

thatourexperiencesofforce，arethoseoutofwhichtheideaofMatter

isbuilt。Matterasopposingourmuscularenergies，beingimmediatelypresent

toconsciousnessintermsofforce;anditsoccupancyofSpacebeingknown

byanabstractofexperiencesoriginallygivenintermsofforce;itfollows

thatforces，standingincertaincorrelations，formthewholecontentofourideaofMatter。###第13章Suchbeingourcognitionoftherelativereality，whatarewetosayof

theabsolutereality？WecanonlysaythatitissomemodeoftheUnknowable，

relatedtotheMatterweknowascausetoeffect。Therelativityofourcognition

ofMatterisshownalikebytheaboveanalysis，andbythecontradictions

whichareevolvedwhenwedealwiththecognitionasanabsoluteone（§16）。

But。aswehavelatelyseen，thoughknowntousonlyunderrelation，Matter

isasrealinthetruesenseofthatword，asitwouldbecouldweknowit

outofrelation;andfurther，therelativerealitywhichweknowasMatter，

isnecessarilyrepresentedtothemindasstandinginapersistentorreal

relationtotheabsolutereality。Wemaythereforedeliverourselvesover，

withouthesitation，tothosetermsofthoughtwhichexperiencehasorganized

inus。Weneednotinourphysical，chemical，orotherresearches，refrain

fromdealingwithMatterasmadeupofextendedandresistantatoms;for

thisconception，necessarilyresultingfromourexperiencesofMatter，is

notlesslegitimatethantheconceptionofaggregatemassesasextendedand

resistant。Theatomichypothesis，andthekindredhypothesisofanall—pervading

etherconsistingofunits，aresimplydevelopmentsofthoseuniversalforms

whichtheactionsoftheUnknowablehavewroughtinus。Theconclusionslogically

workedoutbytheiraidaresuretobeinharmonywithallotherswhichthesesameformsinvolve，andwillhavearelativetruththatisequallycomplete。§49。TheconceptionofMotion，aspresentedorrepresentedinthe

developedconsciousness，involvestheconceptionsofSpace，ofTime，and

ofMatter。Asomethingperceived;aseriesofpositionsoccupiedbyitin

succession;andagroupofco—existentpositionsunitedinthoughtwiththe

successiveones——thesearetheconstituentsoftheidea。Andsince，as

wehaveseen，theseareseverallyelaboratedfromexperiencesofforceas

givenincertaincorrelations，itfollowsthatfromafurthersynthesisof

suchexperiences，theideaofMotionisalsoelaborated。Acertainother

elementintheidea，whichisintruthitsfundamentalelement（namely，the

necessitywhichthemovingbodyisundertogoonchangingitsposition），

resultsimmediatelyfromtheearliestexperiencesofforce。Movementsof

differentpartsoftheorganisminrelationtooneanother，arethefirst

presentedinconsciousness。These，producedbytheactionsofthemuscles，

entailreactionsOnconsciousnessintheshapeofsensationsofmuscular

tension。Consequently，eachstretching—outordrawing—inofalimb，isoriginally

knownasaseriesofmusculartensions，varyingasthepositionofthelimb

changes。AndthisrudimentaryconsciousnessofMotion，consistingofserial

impressionsofforce，becomesinseparablyunitedwiththeconsciousnesses

ofSpaceandTimeasfastastheseareabstractedfromotherimpressions

offorce。Orrather，outofthisprimitiveconceptionofMotion，theadult

conceptionofitisdevelopedsimultaneouslywiththedevelopmentofthe

conceptionsofSpaceandTime:allthreebeingevolvedfromthemoremultipliedandvariedimpressionsofmusculartensionandobjectiveresistance。Thatthisrelativerealityanswerstosomeabsoluterealityitisneedful

onlyforform\'ssaketoassert。Whathasbeensaidabove，respectingthe

UnknownCausewhichproducesinustheeffectscalledMatter，Space，andTime，willapply，onsimplychangingtheterms，toMotion。§§50，51。Wecomedown，then，finallytoForce，astheultimate

ofultimates。ThoughSpace，Time，Matter，andMotion，areapparentlyall

necessarydataofintelligence，yetapsychologicalanalysis（hereindicated

onlyinrudeoutline）showsusthattheseareeitherbuiltupof，orabstracted

from，experiencesofForce。MatterandMotionasweknowthemareconcretes

builtupfromthecontentsofvariousmentalrelations;whileSpaceandTime

areabstractsoftheformsofthesevariousrelations。Deeperdownthanthese，

however，aretheprimordialexperiencesofForce。Asingleimpressionof

forceismanifestlyreceivablebyasentientbeingdevoidofmentalforms。

Grantbutsensibility，withnoestablishedpowerofthought，andaforce

producingsomenervouschange，willstillbepresentableatthesupposed

seatofsensation。Thoughnosingleimpressionofforcesoreceived，could

itselfproduceaconsciousness（whichimpliesrelationsbetweendifferent

states），yetamultiplicationofsuchimpressions，differinginkindand

degree，wouldgivethematerialsfortheestablishmentofrelations，that

is，ofthought。Andifsuchrelationsdifferedintheirformsaswellas

intheircontents，theimpressionsofsuchformswouldbeorganizedsimultaneously

withtheimpressionstheycontained。Itneedsbuttorememberthatconsciousness

consistsofchanges，toseethattheultimatedatumofconsciousnessmust

bethatofwhichchangeisthemanifestation;andthatthustheforceby

whichweourselvesproducechanges，andwhichservestosymbolizethecauseofchangesingeneral，isthefinaldisclosureofanalysis。Thatthisundecomposablemodeofconsciousnessintowhichallothermodes

maybedecomposed，cannotbeitselfthePowermanifestedtousthroughphenomena，

hasbeenalreadyproved（§18）。Wesawthattoassumeidentityofnature

betweenthecauseofchangesasitexistsabsolutely，andthatcauseofchange

ofwhichweareconsciousinourownmuscularefforts，betraysusintoalternate

impossibilitiesofthought。Force，asweknowit，canberegardedonlyas

aconditionedeffectoftheUnconditionedCause——astherelativereality

indicatingtousanAbsoluteRealitybywhichitisimmediatelyproduced。

Chapter4TheIndestructibilityofMatter§52。Notbecausethetruthisunfamiliar，isitneedfulheretoassert

theindestructibilityofMatter;butpartlybecausethesymmetryofourargument

demandsenunciationofthistruth，andpartlybecausetheevidenceonwhich

itisacceptedmustbeexamined。Coulditbeshown，orcoulditwithreason

besupposed，thatMatter，eitherinitsaggregatesorinitsunits，ever

becomesnonexistent，itwouldbeneedfuleithertoascertainunderwhatconditions

itbecomesnon—existent，orelsetoconfessthatScienceandPhilosophyare

impossible。Forif，insteadofhavingtodealwithfixedquantitiesandweights，

wehadtodealwithquantitiesandweightswhichareapt，whollyorinpart，

tobeannihilated，therewouldbeintroducedanincalculableelement，fatal

toallpositiveconclusions。Clearly，therefore，thepropositionthatmatterisindestructiblemustbedeliberatelyconsidered。Sofarfrombeingadmittedasaself—evidenttruth，thiswould，inprimitive

times，havebeenrejectedasaself—evidenterror。Therewasonceuniversally

current，anotionthatthingscouldvanishintonothing，orariseoutof

nothing。Ifmendidnotbelievethisinthestrictsenseoftheword（which

wouldimplythattheprocessofcreationorannihilationwasclearlyrepresented

inconsciousness），theystillbelievedthattheybelievedit;andhownearly，

intheirconfusedthoughts，theonewasequivalenttotheother，isshown

bytheirconduct。Nor，indeed，havedarkagesandinferiormindsalonebetrayed

thisbelief。Initsdogmasrespectingthebeginningandendoftheworld，

thecurrenttheologyclearlyimpliesit;anditmaybequestionedwhether

Shakespeare，inhispoeticalanticipationofatimewhenallthingsshall

disappearand"leavenotawrackbehind，"wasnotunderitsinfluence。

Theaccumulationofexperiences，however，andstillmoretheorganization

ofexperiences，hasslowlyreversedthisconviction。Allapparentproofs

thatsomethingcancomeoutofnothing，awiderknowledgehasonebyone

cancelled。Thecometwhichissuddenlydiscoveredandnightlywaxeslarger，

isprovednottobeanewly—createdbodybutabodywhichwasuntillately

beyondtherangeofvision。Thecloudformedafewminutesagointhesky，

consistsnotofsubstancethathasjustbeguntobe，butofsubstancethat

previouslyexistedinatransparentform。Andsimilarlywithacrystalor

aprecipitateinrelationtothefluiddepositingit。Conversely，theseeming

annihilationsofmatterturnouttobeonlychangesofstate。Itisfound

thattheevaporatedwater，thoughithasbecomeinvisible，maybebrought

bycondensationtoitsoriginalshape。Thoughfromadischargedfowling—piece

thegunpowderhasdisappeared，therehaveappearedinplaceofitcertain

gaseswhich，inassumingalargervolume，havecausedtheexplosion。Not，

however，untiltheriseofquantitativechemistry，couldtheconclusionsuggested

bysuchexperiencesbeharmonizedwithallthefacts。When，havingascertained

notonlythecombinationsformedbyvarioussubstances，butalsotheproportions

inwhichtheycombine，chemistswereenabledtoaccountforthematterthat

hadmadeitsappearanceorbecomeinvisible，scepticismwasdissipated。And

ofthegeneralconclusionthusreached，theexactanalysisdailymade，by

whichthesameportionofmatterispursuedthroughnumerousdisguisesandfinallyseparated，furnishnever—ceasingconfirmations。Suchhasbecometheeffectofthisspecificevidence，joinedtothatgeneral

evidencewhichthecontinuedexistenceoffamiliarobjectsgivesus，that

theIndestructibilityofMatterisnowheldbymanytobeatruthofwhichthenegationisinconceivable。§53。Thislastfactrisesthequestionwhetherwehaveanyhigher

warrantforthisfundamentalbeliefthanthewarrantofconsciousinduction。Beforeshowingthatwehaveahigherwarrant，someexplanationsareneedful。Theconsciousnessoflogicalnecessity，istheconsciousnessthatacertain

conclusionisimplicitlycontainedincertainpremisesexplicitlystated。

If，contrastingayoungchildandanadult，weseethatthisconsciousness

oflogicalnecessity，absentfromtheoneispresentintheother，weare

taughtthatthereisagrowinguptotherecognitionofcertainnecessarytruths，merelybytheunfoldingoftheinheritedintellectualformsandfacilities。Tostatethecasemorespecifically:——Beforeatruthcanbeknownas

necessary，twoconditionsmustbefulfilled。Theremustbeamentalstructure

capableofgraspingthetermsofthepropositionandtherelationalleged

betweenthem;andtheremustbesuchdefiniteanddeliberatementalrepresentation

oftheseterms，asmakespossibleaclearconsciousnessofthisrelation。

Non—fulfilmentofeitherconditionmaycausenon—recognitionofthenecessityofthetruth。Letustakecases。Thesavagewhocannotcountthefingersononehand，canframenodefinite

thoughtansweringtothestatementthat7and5are12;stilllesscanheframetheconsciousnessthatnoothertotalispossible。Theboyaddingupfiguresinattentivelysaystohimselfthat7and5are

11;andmayrepeatedlybringoutawrongresultbyrepeatedlymakingthiserror。Neitherthenon—recognitionofthetruththat7and5are12，whichin

thesavageresultsfromundevelopedmentalstructure，northeassertion，

duetotheboy\'scarelessmentalaction，thattheymake11，leadsustodoubt

thenecessityoftherelationbetweenthesetwoseparately—existingnumbers

andthesumtheymakewhenexistingtogether。Nordoesfailurefromeither

causetoapprehendthenecessityofthisrelation，makeushesitatetosay

thatwhenitstermsaredistinctlyrepresentedinthought，itsnecessity

willbeseen;andthat，apartfrommultipliedexperiences，thisnecessity

becomescognizablewhenstructuresandfunctionsaresofardevelopedthatgroupsof7and5and12canbementallygrasped。Manifestly，then，therearerecognitionsofnecessarytruths，assuch，

whichaccompanymentalevolution。Andthereareascendinggradationsinthese

recognitions。Aboywhohasintelligenceenoughtoseethatthingswhich

areequaltothesamethingareequaltooneanother，maybeunabletosee

thatratioswhichareseverallyequaltocertainotherratiosthatareunequal

toeachother，arethemselvesunequal;thoughtoamore—developedmindthislastaxiomisnolessobviouslynecessarythanthefirst。Allthiswhichholdsoflogicalandmathematicaltruths，holds，withchange

ofterms，ofphysicaltruths。TherearenecessarytruthsinPhysicsforthe

apprehensionofwhich，also，adevelopedanddisciplinedintelligenceis

required;andbeforesuchintelligencearises，notonlymaytherebefailure

toapprehendthenecessityofthem，buttheremaybevaguebeliefsintheir

contraries。Uptocomparatively—recenttimes，allmankindwereinthisstate

ofincapacityrespectingphysicalaxioms;andthemassofmankindareso

still。Effectsareexpectedwithoutcausesoffitkinds;oreffectsextremely

disproportionatetocausesarelookedfor;orcausesaresupposedtoend

withouteffects。（*）<*Iknewaladywhocontendedthatadressfolded

uptightly，weighedmorethanwhenlooselyfoldedup;andwhounderthis

belief，hadhertrunksmadelargethatshemightdiminishthechargefor

freight！AnotherwhomIknow，ascribesthefeelingoflightnesswhichaccompanies

vigour。toactualdecreaseofweight;believesthatby。steppinggently，

shecanpresslessupontheground;and，whencross—questioned。assertsthat。

Ifplacedinscales，shecanmakeherselflighterbyanactofwill！>

Butthoughmanyareunabletograspphysicalaxioms，itnomorefollowsthat

physicalaxiomsarenotknowableaprioribyadevelopedintellect，than

itfollowsthatlogicalrelationsarenotnecessary，becauseundevelopedintellectscannotperceivetheirnecessity。Itisthuswiththenotionswhichhavebeencurrentrespectingthecreation

andannihilationofMatter。Inthefirstplace，therehasbeenaconfounding

oftworadically—differentthings——disappearanceofMatterfromavisible

form，saybyevaporation，andpassageofMatterfromexistenceintonon—existence。

Untilthisconfusionisavoided，thebeliefthatMattercanbeannihilated

readilyobtainscurrency。Inthesecondplace，thecurrencyofitcontinues

solongasthereisnotpowerofintrospectionenoughtomakemanifestwhat

resultsfromtheattempttoannihilateMatterinthought。Butwhenthevague

ideasarisinginanervousstructureimperfectlyorganized，arereplaced

bytheclearideasarisinginadefinitenervousstructure;thisdefinite

structure，mouldedbyexperienceintocorrespondencewithexternalthings，

makesnecessaryinthoughttherelationsansweringtouniformitiesinthings。Hence，amongothers，theconceptionoftheIndestructibilityofMatter。Forself—analysisshowsthistobeadatumofconsciousness。Conceive

spacetobeclearedofallbodiessaveone。Nowimaginetheremainingone

nottoberemovedfromitsplace，buttolapseintonothingwhilestanding

inthatplace。Youfail。Thespacewhichwassolidyoucannotconceivebecoming

empty，savebytransferofthatwhichmadeitsolid。Whatistermedtheultimate

incompressibilityofMatter，isanadmittedlawofthought。Howeversmall

thebulktowhichweconceiveapieceofmatterreduced，itisimpossible

toconceiveitreducedintonothing。Whilewecanrepresenttoourselves

itspartsasapproximated，wecannotrepresenttoourselvesthequantity

ofmatterasmadeless。Todothiswouldbetoimaginesomeoftheparts

compressedintonothing，whichisnomorepossiblethantoimaginecompression

ofthewholeintonothing。OurinabilitytoconceiveMatterbecomingnon—existent，

isconsequentonthenatureofthought。Thoughtconsistsintheestablishment

ofrelations。Therecanbenorelationestablished，andthereforenothought

framed，whenoneoftherelatedtermsisabsentfromconsciousness。Hence

itisimpossibletothinkofsomethingbecomingnothing，forthesamereason

thatitisimpossibletothinkofnothingbecomingsomething——thereason，

namely，thatnothingcannotbecomeanobjectofconsciousness。Theannihilation

ofMatterisunthinkableforthesamereasonthatthecreationofMatterisunthinkable。Itmustbeaddedthatnoexperimentalverificationofthetruth。that

Matterisindestructible，ispossiblewithoutatacitassumptionofit。For

allsuchverificationimpliesweighing，andweighingassumesthatthematterformingtheweightremainsthesame。§54。Andhereweareintroducedtothatwhichitmostconcernsus

toobserve——thenatureoftheperceptionsbywhichthepermanenceofMatter

isperpetuallyillustrated。Theseperceptionsunderalltheirformssimply

revealthis——thattheforcewhichagivenquantityofmatterembodiesremains

alwaysthesameunderthesameconditions。Atoywhichlongunseenproduces

inusasetofvisualandtactualfeelingslikethoseproducedinchildhood

isrecognizedasthesamebecauseithasthepowerofaffectingusinthe

sameways。Thedownwardstrainofsomesovereignswhichthebank—clerkweighs

tosavehimselfthetroubleofcounting，provesthespecialamountofaspecial

kindofMatter;andthegoldsmithusesthesametestwhentheshapeofthe

Matterhasbeenchangedbyaworkman。So，too，withspecialproperties。Whether

acertaincrystalisorisnotdiamond，isdecidedbyitsresistancetoabrasion

andthedegreetowhichitbendslightoutofitscourse。Andsothechemist

whenapieceofsubstancelatelyvisibleandtangiblehasbeenreducedto

aninvisible，intangiblegas，buthasthesameweight，orwhenthequantity

ofacertainelementisinferredfromitsabilitytoneutralizeagivenquantity

ofsomeotherelement，hereferstotheamountofactionwhichtheMatterexercisesashismeasureoftheamountofMatter。Thus，then，bytheIndestructibilityofMatter，wereillymeantheindestructibility

oftheforcewithwhichMatteraffectsus。Andthistruthismademanifest

notonlybyanalysisoftheaposterioricognition，butequallysobyanalysisoftheapriorione。（*）<*Lestheshouldnothaveobservedit，thereadermustbewarnedthat

theterms"aprioritruth"and"necessarytruth，"as

usedinthiswork，aretobeinterpretednotintheoldsense，asimplying

cognitionswhollyindependentofexperiences，butasimplyingcognitions

thathavebeenrenderedorganicbyimmenseaccumulationsofexperiences，

receivedpartlybytheindividual，butmainlybyallancestralindividuals

whosenervoussystemsheinherits。OnreferringtothePrinciplesofPsychology（§§426—433），itwillbeseenthatthewarrantallegedforoneof

theseirreversibleultimateconvictionsisthat，onthehypothesisofEvolution，

itrepresentsanimmeasurably—greateraccumulationofexperiencesthancan

beacquiredbyanysingleindividual。>

Chapter5TheContinuityofMotion§55。LiketheIndestructibilityofMatter，theContinuityofMotion，

or，morestrictly，ofthatsomethingwhichhasMotionforoneofitssensible

forms，isatruthonwhichdependsthepossibilityofexactScience，and

thereforeofaPhilosophywhichunifiestheresultsofexactScience。Motions，

visibleandinvisible，ofmassesandofmolecules，formthelargerhalfof

thephenomenatobeinterpreted;andifsuchmotionsmighteitherproceed

fromnothingorlapseintonothing，therecouldbenoscientificinterpretationofthem。Thissecondfundamentaltruth，likethefirst，isnotself—evidentto

primitivemennortotheunculturedamongourselves。Contrariwise，touninstructed

mindstheoppositeseemsself—evident。Thefactsthatastonethrownupsoon

losesitsascendingmotion，andthataftertheblowitsfallgivestothe

Earth，itremainsquiescent，apparentlyprovethattheprincipleofactivity（*）<*

ThroughoutthischapterIusethisphrase。notwithanymetaphysicalmeaning，

butmerelytoavoidforegoneconclusions。>whichthestonemanifested

maydisappearabsolutely。Acceptingthedictaofunaidedperception，all

menoncebelieved，andmostbelievestill，thatmotioncanpassintonothing，

andordinarilydoessopass。Buttheestablishmentofcertainfactshaving

oppositeimplications，ledtoinquirieswhichhaveprovedtheseappearances

tobeillusive。Thediscoverythatthecelestialmotionsdonotdiminish，

raisedthesuspicionthatamovingbody，whennotinterferedwith，willgo

onforeverwithoutchangeofvelocity;andsuggestedthequestionwhether

bodieswhichlosetheirmotion，donotatthesametimecommunicateasmuch

motiontootherbodies。Itwasafamiliarfactthatastonewouldglidefurther

overasmoothsurface，asthatofice，presentingnosmallobjectstowhich

itcouldpartwithitsmotionbycollision，thanoverasurfacestrewnwith

suchsmallobjects;andthatastickhurledintotheairwouldtravelafar

greaterdistancethanifhurledintoadensemediumlikewater。Thusthe

primitivenotionthatmovingbodieshaveaninherenttendencytostop——

anotionwhichtheGreeksdidnotgetridof，andwhichlastedtillthetime

ofGalileo——begantogiveway。Itwasfurthershakenbysuchexperiments

asthoseofHooke，whichprovedthatatopspinsthelongerinproportionasitispreventedfromcommunicatingmotiontosurroundingmatter。Toexplainherealldisappearancesofvisiblemotionsisoutofthequestion。

Itmustsufficetostate，generally，thatthemolarmotionwhichdisappears

whenabellisstruckbyitsclapper，re—appearsinthebell\'svibrations

andinthewavesofairtheyproduce;thatwhenamovingmassisstopped

bycomingagainstamassthatisimmovable，themotionwhichdoesnotshow

itselfinsoundshowsitselfinmolecularmotion;andthatwhenbodiesrub

againstoneanother，themotionlostbyfrictionisgainedinthemotion

ofmolecules。Butoneaspectofthisgeneraltruth，asitisdisplayedin

themotionsofmasses，wemustcarefullycontemplate;for，otherwise，thedoctrineoftheContinuityofMotionwillbemisapprehended。§56。AsexpressedbyNewton，thefirstlawofmotionisthat"every

bodymustpersevereinitsstateofrest，Orofuniformmotioninastraight

line，unlessitbecompelledtochangethatstatebyforcesimpresseduponit。"Withthistruthmaybeassociatedthetruththatabodydescribingacircular

orbitroundacentrewhichdetainsitbyatractiveforce，movesinthatorbitwithundiminishedvelocity。Thefirstoftheseabstracttruthsisneverrealizedintheconcrete，

andthesecondofthemisbutapproximatelyrealized。Uniformmotionina

straightlineimpliestheabsenceofaresistingmedium;anditfurtherimplies

theabsenceofforces，gravitativeorotherexercisedbyneighbouringmasses:

conditionsneverfulfilled。So，too，themaintenanceofacircularorbit

byanycelestialbody，impliesthattherearenoperturbingbodies，andthat

thereisanexactadjustmentbetweenitsvelocityandthetractiveforce

ofitsprimary:neitherrequirementeverbeingconformedto。Inactualorbits，

sensiblyellipticalastheyare，thevelocityissensiblyvariable。Andalongwithgreateccentricitytheregoesgreatvariation。###第14章Withthecaseofthesecelestialbodieswhich，movingineccentricorbits，

displayatonetimelittlemotionandatanothermuchmotion，maybeassociated

aspartiallyanalogousthecaseofthependulum。Withspeednowincreasing

andnowdecreasing，thependulumalternatesbetweenextremesatwhichmotionceases。Howshallwesoconceivethesealliedphenomenaastoexpressrightly

thetruthcommontothem？Thefirstlawofmotion，nowhereliterallyfulfilled，

isyet，inasense，impliedbythesefactswhichseematvariancewithit。

Thoughinacircularorbitthedirectionofthemotioniscontinuallybeing

changed，yetthevelocityremainsunchanged。Thoughinanellipticalorbit

thereisnowaccelerationandnowretardation，yettheaveragespeedisconstant

throughsuccessiverevolutions。Thoughthependulumcomestoamomentary

restattheendofeachswing，andthenbeginsareversemotion，yetthe

oscillation，consideredasawhole，iscontinuous:frictionandatmosphericresistancebeingabsent，thisalternationofstateswouldgoonforever。What，then，dothesecasesshowusincommon？Thatwhichvisionfamiliarizes

uswithinMotion，andthatwhichhasthusbeenmadethedominantelement

inourconceptionofMotion，isnottheelementofwhichwecanallegecontinuity。

IfweregardMotionsimplyaschangeofplace，thenthependulumshowsus

boththattherateofthischangemayvaryfrominstanttoinstant，andthat，ceasingatintervals，itmaybeafreshinitiated。Butifwhatwemaycallthetranslation—elementinMotionisnotcontinuous，

whatiscontinuous？If，likeGalileo，wewatchaswingingchandelier，and

observe，nottheisochronismofitsoscillationsbuttherecurringreversal

ofdirection，weareimpressedwiththefactthatthough，attheendofeach

swing，thetranslationthroughspaceceases，yetthereissomethingwhich

doesnotcease;forthetranslationrecommencesintheoppositedirection。

Andonrememberingthatwhenaviolentpushwasgiventothechandelierit

describedalargerarc，andwasalongertimebeforetheresistanceofthe

airbroughtittorest，weareshownthatwhatcontinuestoexistduring

itsalternatingmovementsissomecorrelativeofthemusculareffortwhich

putitinmotion。Thetruthforcedonourattentionisthattranslationthrough

spaceisnotitselfanexistence;andthathencethecessationofMotion，

consideredsimplyastranslation，isnotthecessationofanexistence，butisthecessationofacertainsignofanexistence。StillthereremainsadifficultyIfthatelementinthechandelier\'smotion

ofwhichalonewecanallegecontinuityisthecorrelativeofthemuscular

effortwhichmoved，thechandelier，whatbecomesofthiselementateither

extremeoftheoscillation？Arrestthechandelierinthemiddleofitsswing，

anditgivesablowtothehand—exhibitssomeprincipleofactivitysuch

asmusculareffortcangive。Buttouchitateitherturningpointandit

displaysnosuchprincipleofactivity。Thishasdisappearedjustasmuch

asthetranslationthroughspacehasdisappeared。Howthen，canitbealleged

thatthoughtheMotionthroughspaceisnotcontinuous，theprincipleofactivityimpliedbytheMotioniscontinuous？Unquestionablythefactsshowthattheprincipleofactivitycontinues

toexistundersomeform。Whennotperceptibleitmustbelatent。Howis

itlatent？Acluetotheanswerisgainedonobservingthatthoughthechandelier

whenseizedattheturningpointofitsswing，givesnoimpactinthedirection

ofitslatemovement，itforthwithbeginstopullintheoppositedirection;

andonobserving，further，thatitspullisgreatwhentheswinghasbeen

madeextensivebyaviolentpush。Hencethelossofvisibleactivityatthe

highestpointoftheupwardmotion，isaccompaniedbytheproductionofan

invisibleactivitywhichgeneratesthesubsequentmotiondownwards。Toconceive

thislatentactivitygained，asanexistenceequaltotheperceptibleactivity

lost，isnoteasy;butwemayhelpourselvessotoconceiveitbyconsideringcasesofanotherclass。§57。Whenonewhopushesagainstadoorthathasstuckfast，produces

bygreateffortnomotion，buteventuallybyalittlegreatereffortbursts

thedooropen，swingingitbackandtumblingheadlongintotheroom，hehas

evidencethatthefirstmuscularstrainwhichdidnotproducetransferof

matterthroughspace，wasyetequivalenttoacertainamountofsuchtransfer。

Again，whenarailway—portergraduallystopsadetachedcarriagebypulling

atthebuffer，heshowsusthat（supposingfriction，etc。，absent）theslowly—diminished

motionofthecarriageoveracertainspace，istheequivalentoftheconstant

backwardstrainputuponthecarriagewhileitistravelingthroughthat

space。Carryingwithustheconceptionthusreached，wewillnowconsideracasewhichmakesitmoredefinite。Whenusedasaplaything，aballfastenedtotheendofanindia—rubber

stringyieldsaclearideaofthecorrelationbetweenperceptibleactivity

andlatentactivity。If，retainingoneendofthestring，aboythrowsthe

ballfromhimhorizontally，itsmotionisresistedbytheincreasingstrain

onthestring;andthestring，stretchedmoreandmoreastheballrecedes，

presentlybringsittorest。Wherenowexiststheprincipleofactivitywhich

themovingballdisplayed？Itexistsinthestrainedthreadofindia—rubber。

Underwhatformofchangedmolecularstateitexistsweneednotask。It

sufficesthatthestringistheseatofatensiongeneratedbythemotion

oftheball，andequivalenttoit。Whentheballhasbeenarrestedthestretched

stringbeginstogenerateinitanoppositemotion，andcontinuestoaccelerate

thatmotionuntiltheballcomesbacktothepointatwhichthestretching

ofthestringcommenced——apointatwhich，butforlossbyatmospheric

resistanceandmolecularredistribution，itsvelocitywouldbeequaltothe

originalvelocity。Herethetruththattheprincipleofvelocity，alternating

betweenvisibleandinvisiblemodes，doesnotceasetoexistwhenthetranslation

throughspaceceasestoexist，isreadilycomprehensible;anditbecomes

easytounderstandthecorollarythatateachpointinthepathoftheball，

thequantityofitsperceptibleactivity，plusthequantitywhichislatentinthestretchedstring，yieldsaconstantsum。Aidedbythisillustration，wecanvaguelyconceivewhathappensbetween

bodiesconnected，notbyastretchedstring，butbyatractionexercised

byaninvisibleagency。Itmattersnottoourgeneralconceptionthatthe

intensityofthistractionvariesinadifferentmanner:decreasingasthe

squareofthedistanceincreases，butbeingpracticallyconstantforterrestrial

distances。Notwithstandingthesedifferencesthereisatruthcommontothe

twocases。Theweightofsomethingheldinthehandshowsthatbetweenone

bodyinspaceandanotherthereexistsastrain。Thisdownwardpullaffects

thehandasitmightbeaffectedbyastretchedelasticstring。Hence，when

abodyprojectedupwardsandgraduallyretardedbygravity，finallystops，

wemustregardtheprincipleofactivitymanifestedashavingbecomelatent

inthestrainbetweenitandtheEarth——astrainofwhichthequantity

istobeconceivedastheproductofitsintensityandthedistancethrough

whichitacts。Carryingastepfurtherourillustrationofthestretched

string，willelucidatethis。Tosimulatetheactionofgravityatterrestrial

distances，letusimaginethatwhentheattachedmovingbodyhasstretched

theelasticstringtoitslimit，sayatthedistanceoftenfeet（fromwhich

pointitispreventedfromcontractingback），asecondlikestringcould

instantlybetiedtotheendofthefirstandtothebody，whichcontinuing

itscoursestretchedthissecondstring，andsoonwithasuccessionofsuch

strings，tillthebodywasarrested。Then，obviously，thequantityofthe

principleofactivitywhichthemovingbodypossessed，butwhichhasnow

becomelatentinthestretchedstrings，ismeasuredbythenumberofsuch

stringsoverwhichthestrainextends。Nowthoughthetractiveforceofthe

Earthisnotexercisedinalikeway——thoughgravity，utterlyunknownin

itsnature，isprobablyaresultantofactionspervadingtheetherealmedium;

yettheaboveanalogysuggeststhebeliefthattheprincipleofactivity

exhibitedbyastonethrownupandpresentlyarrested，hasnotceasedto

exist，buthasbecomesomuchimperceptibleorlatentactivityinthemedium

occupyingspace;andthatwhenthestonefalls，thisisre—transformedinto

itsequivalentofperceptibleactivity。Ifweconceivetheprocessatall，

wemustconceiveitthus:otherwise，wehavetoconceivethatapowerhasbeenchangedintoaspace—relation，andthisisinconceivable。Here，then，isthesolutionofthedifficultyThespace—elementofMotion

isnotinitselfathing。Changeofpositionisnotanexistence，butthe

manifestationofanexistence。Thisexistence（supposingitnottransferred

bycollisionorfriction）mayceasetodisplayitselfastranslation;but

itcandosoonlybydisplayingitselfasstrain。Andthisprincipleofactivity

nowshownbytranslation，nowbystrain，andoftenbythetwotogether，isalonethatwhichinMotionwecancallcontinuous。§58。Whatisthisprincipleofactivity？Visiongivesusnoidea

ofit。Ifbyamirrorwecasttheimageofanilluminatedobjectontoa

darkwall，andthensuddenlychangingtheattitudeofthemirrormakethe

reflectedimagepassfromsidetoside，nothoughtarisesthatthereispresent

intheimageaprincipleofactivity。Beforewecanconceivethepresence

ofthis，wemustregardthevisualimpressionassymbolizingsomethingtangible。

Sightofamovingbodysuggestsaprincipleofactivitywhichwouldbeappreciable

byskinandmuscleswerethebodylaidholdof。Thisprincipleofactivity

whichMotionshowsus，istheobjectivesenseofeffort。Bypushingandpulling

wegetfeelingswhich，generalizedandabstracted，yieldourideasofresistance

andtension。Nowdisplayedbychangingpositionandnowbyunchangingstrain，

thisprincipleofactivityisultimatelyconceivedbyusunderthesingle

formofitsequivalentmusculareffort。SothatthecontinuityofMotion，

aswellastheindestructibilityofMatter，isreallyknowntousinterms

ofForce。Here，however，theForceisofthekindknownasEnergy——aword

appliedtotheforce，molarormolecular，possessedbymatterinaction，

asdistinguishedfromthepassiveforcebywhichmattermaintainsitsshapeandoccupiesspace:aforcewhichphysicistsappeartothinkneedsnoname。§59。Andnowwereachthetruthtobehereespeciallynoted。All

proofsoftheContinuityofMotioninvolvethepostulatethatthequantity

ofEnergyisconstant。ObservewhatresultswhenweanalyzethereasoningsbywhichtheContinuityofMotionisshown。Aparticularplanetisidentifiedbyitsconstantpowertoaffectour

eyesinaspecialway。Further，suchplanethasnotbeenseentomoveby

theastronomer;butitsmotionisinferredfromacomparisonofitspresent

positionwiththepositionitbeforeoccupied。Thiscomparisonprovesto

beacomparisonbetweenthedifferentimpressionsproducedonhimbythe

differentadjustmentsofhisobservinginstruments。Andthevalidityofthe

inferences。drawndependsonthetruthoftheassumptionthatthesemasses

ofmatter，celestialandterrestrial，continuetoaffecthissensesinthe

samewaysunderthesameconditions。Ongoingastepfurtherback，itturns

outthatdifferenceintheadjustmentofhisobservinginstrument，andby

implicationintheplanet\'sposition，ismeaninglessuntilshowntocorrespond

withacertaincalculatedpositionwhichtheplanetmustoccupy，supposing

thatnomotionhasbeenlost。Andif，finally，weexaminetheimpliedcalculation，

wefindthatittakesintoaccountthoseaccelerationsandretardationswhich

ellipticityoftheorbitinvolves，aswellasthosevariationsofmotion

causedbyadjacentplanets——wefind，thatis，thatthemotionisconcluded

tobeindestructiblenotfromtheuniformvelocityoftheplanet，butfrom

theconstantquantityofmotionexhibitedafterallowanceshavebeenmade

forthemotionscommunicatedto，orreceivedfrom，othercelestialbodies。

Andwhenweaskhowthisisestimated，wediscoverthattheestimateassumes

certainlawsofforceorenergy;whichlaws，oneandall，embodythepostulatethatenergycannotbedestroyed。SimilarlywiththeaprioriconclusionthatMotioniscontinuous。That

whichdefiessuppressioninthought（disciplinedthought，ofcourse），is

theforcewhichthemotionindicates。Wecanimagineretardationtoresult

fromtheactionsofotherbodies。Buttoimaginethiswemustimagineloss

ofsomeoftheenergyimpliedbythemotion。Weareobligedtoconceivethis

energyasimpressedintheshapeofreactiononthebodiescausingtheretardation。

Andthemotioncommunicatedtothem，wearecompelledtoregardasaproduct

ofthecommunicatedenergy。Wecanmentallydiminishthevelocityorspace—element

ofmotion，bydiffusingthemomentumorforce—elementoveralargermassofmatter;butthequantityofthisforce—elementisunchangeableinthought。*<*Thisexpositiondiffersinitspointofviewfromtheexpositions

ordinarilygiven;andsomeofthewordsemployed，suchasstrain，havesomewhat

largerimplications。UnabletolearnanythingaboutthenatureofForce，

physicistshave，oflateyears，formulatedultimatephysicaltruthsinsuch

waysasoftentacitlytoexcludetheconsciousnessofForce:conceivingcause，

asHumeproposed，intermsofantecedenceandsequenceonly。"Potential

energy，"forexample，isdefinedasconstitutedbysuchrelationsin

spaceaspermitmassestogenerateinoneanothercertainmotions，butas

beinginitselfnothing。Whilethismodeofconceivingthephenomenasuffices

forphysicalinquiries。Itdoesnotsufficeforthepurposesofphilosophy。

InthePrinciplesofPsychology，§§347—350，Ihaveshown

thatourideasofBody，Space，Motion，arederivedfromourideasofmuscular

tension，whicharetheultimatesymbolsintowhichallourothermentalsymbols

areinterpretable。Hencetoformulatephenomenaintheproximatetermsof

Body，Space，Motion，whiledischargingfromtheconceptstheconsciousnessofForce，istoacknowledgethesuperstructurewhileignoringthefoundation。When，in1875，Irecasttheforegoingchapter，andsetforthmorefully

thedoctrinecontainedintheansweringchaptersofprecedingeditions，I

supposedmyselftobealoneindissentingfromtheprevailingdoctrine。But

ayearafter，inthePhilosophicalMagazineforOctober，1876，Iwas

gladtoseethesameviewenunciatedanddefendedbyDr。Croll，inanessay

"OntheTransformationofGravity。"Icommendhisargumentstothosewhoarenotconvincedbytheargumentsusedabove。Letmeaddaremarkconcerningthenatureofthequestionatissue。It

isassumedthat，asamatterofcourse，itisaquestionfallingwithinthe

sphereofthemathematiciansandphysicists。Idemurtotheassumption。It

isaquestionfallingwithinthesphereofthepsychologists——aquestion

concerningtherightinterpretationofourideas。>

Chapter6

ThePersistenceofForce（*）<*Someexplanationofthistitleisneedful。Inthetextitselfare

giventhereasonsforusingtheword"force"insteadoftheword

"energy"andhereImustsaywhyIthink"persistence"

preferableto"conservation。"Sometwoyearsago（thiswaswritten

in1861）IexpressedtomyfriendProf。Huxley，mydissatisfactionwiththe

（then）currentexpression——"ConservationofForce，"assigning

asreasons，first，thattheword"conservation"impliesaconserver

andanactofconserving;and，second，thatitdoesnotimplytheexistence

oftheforcebeforetheparticularmanifestationofitwhichiscontemplated。

AndImaynowadd，asafurtherfault，thetacitassumptionthat，without

someactofconservation，forcewoulddisappear。Alltheseimplicationsare

atvariancewiththeconceptiontobeconveyed。Inplaceof"conservation"

Prof。Huxleysuggestedpersistence。Thismeetsmostoftheobjections;and

thoughitmaybeurgedthatitdoesnotdirectlyimplypre—existenceofthe

forceatanytimemanifested，yetnowordlessfaultyinthisrespectcan

befound。IntheabsenceofawordcoinedforthePurpose，itseemsthebest;andassuchIadoptit。>§60。Intheforegoingtwochapters，manifestationsofforceoftwo

fundamentally—differentclasseshavebeendealtwith——theforcebywhich

matterdemonstratesitselftousasexisting，andtheforcebywhichitdemonstratesitselftousasacting。Bodyisdistinguishablefromspacebyitspowerofaffectingoursenses，

and，inthelastresort，byitsoppositiontoourefforts。Wecanconceive

ofbodyonlybyjoininginthoughtextensionandresistance:takeawayresistance，

andthereremainsonlyspace。Inwhatwaythisforcewhichproducesspace—occupancy

isconditionedwedonotknow。Themodeofforcewhichisrevealedtous

onlybyoppositiontoourownpowers，mayhaveforoneofitsfactorsthe

modeofforcewhichrevealsitselfbythechangesinitiatedinourconsciousness。

Thatthespaceabodyoccupiesisinpartdeterminedbythedegreeofthat

activityofitsmoleculesknownasheat，isafamiliartruth。Moreover，such

molecularrearrangementasoccurswhenwaterischangedintoice，isshown

tobeaccompaniedbyanevolutionofforcewhichmayburstthecontaining

vesselandgivemotiontothefragments。Nevertheless，theformsofourexperience

obligeustodistinguishbetweentwomodesofforce;theonenotaworker

ofchangeandtheotheraworkerofchange，actualorpotential。Thefirstofthese——thespace—occupyingkindofforce——hasnospecificname。Forthesecondkindofforce，thespecificnamenowacceptedis"Energy。"

Thatwhichinthelastchapterwasspokenofasperceptibleactivity，is

calledbyphysicists，"actualenergy;"andthatwhichwasthere

spokenofaslatentactivity，theycall"potentialenergy。"While

includingthemodeofactivityshowninmolarmotion，Energyincludesalso

theseveralmodesofactivityintowhichmolarmotionistransformable——

heat，light，etc。Itisthecommonnameforthepowershownalikeinthe

movementsofmassesandinthemovementsofmolecules。Toourperceptions

thissecondkindofforcediffersfromthefirstkindasbeingnotintrinsicbutextrinsic。Inaggregatedmatteraspresentedtosightandtouch，thisantithesis

is，asaboveimplied，muchobscured。Especiallyinacompoundsubstance，

boththelatentenergylockedupinthechemically—combinedmoleculesand

theactualenergymadeperceptibletousasheat，complicatethemanifestations

ofintrinsicforcebythemanifestationsofextrinsicforce。Buttheantithesis，

herepartiallyhidden，isclearlyseenonreducingthedatatotheirlowest

terms——aunitofmatter，oratom，anditsmotion。Theforcebywhichit

existsispassivebutindependent;whiletheforcebywhichitmovesisactive

butdependentonitspastandpresentrelationstootheratoms。Thesetwo

cannotbeidentifiedinourthoughts。Forasitisimpossibletothinkof

motionwithoutsomethingthatmoves，soitisimpossibletothinkofenergywithoutsomethingpossessingtheenergy。Whilerecognizingthisfundamentaldistinctionbetweenthatintrinsic

forcebywhichbodymanifestsitselfasoccupyingspace，andthatextrinsic

forcedistinguishedasenergy，Iheretreatofthemtogetherasbeingalike

persistent。AndIthustreatofthemtogetherpartlybecause，inourconsciousness

ofthem，thereisthesameessentialelement。Thesenseofeffortisour

subjectivesymbolforobjectiveforceingeneral，passiveandactive。Power

ofresistingthatwhichweknowasourownmuscularstrain，istheultimate

elementinourideaofbodyasdistinguishedfromspace;andanymotorenergy

whichwegivetobody，orreceivefromit，isthoughtofasequaltoacertain

amountofmuscularstrain。Thetwoconsciousnessesdifferessentiallyin

this，thatthefeelingofeffortcommontothemisinthelastcasejoined

withconsciousnessofchangeofposition，butinthefirstcaseisnot。*

<*Concerningthefundamentaldistinctionheremadebetweenthespace—occupying

kindofforce，andthekindofforceshownbyvariousmodesofactivityI

am，asinthelastchapter，atissuewithsomeofmyscientificfriends。

Theydonotadmitthattheconceptionofforceisinvolvedintheconception

ofaunitofmatter。Fromthepsychologicalpointofviewhowever，Matter，

inallitsproperties，istheunknowncauseofthesensationsitproduces

inus;ofwhichtheonewhichremainswhenallothersareabsent，isresistance

toourefforts——aresistanceweareobligedtosymbolizeastheequivalent

ofthemuscularforceitopposes。Inimaginingaunitofmatterwemaynot

ignorethissymbol，bywhichaloneaunitofmattercanbefiguredinthought

asanexistence。Itisnotallowabletospeakasthoughthereremaineda

conceptionofanexistencewhenthatconceptionhasbeeneviscerated——deprived

oftheelementofthoughtbywhichitisdistinguishedfromemptyspace。

Divesttheconceivedunitofmatteroftheobjectivecorrelatetooursubjectivesenseofeffort，andtheentirefabricofphysicalconceptionsdisappears。>Thereis，however，afurtherandmoreimportantreasonforheredealing

withthepropositionthatForceundereachoftheseformspersists。Wehavetoexamineitswarrant。§61。Alittlemorepatienceisasked。Wemustreconsiderthereasoning

bywhichtheindestructibilityofMatterandthecontinuityofMotionare

established，thatwemayseehowimpossibleitistoarrivebyparallelreasoningatthePersistenceofForce。Inallthreecasesthequestionisoneofquantity。DoestheMatteror

Motion，orForce，everdiminishinquantity？Quantitativescienceimplies

measurement，andmeasurementimpliesaunitofmeasure。Theunitsofmeasure

fromwhichallothersofanyexactnessarederived，areunitsoflinearextension。